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/Title (2 Deepsky catalogues)
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/Title (2.1 Lacaille )
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/Title (2.2 James Dunlop )
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/Title (2.6 Jack Bennett )
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/Title (Appendix 1: Lacaille's deepsky catalogue )
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/Title (Appendix 4: The Jack Bennett Catalogue )
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/Title (Appendix 5: Abbreviations sometimes used in deepsky descriptions )
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/Title (Appendix 6: Star colours )
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66.17 711.83 l
f
67.73 711.35 m
67.37 711.71 l
66.41 711.71 l
66.17 711.83 l
65.81 711.23 l
66.17 711.23 l
66.41 711.11 l
66.89 710.99 l
67.37 710.99 l
67.01 711.35 l
67.73 711.35 l
67.73 711.71 l
67.37 711.71 l
67.73 711.35 l
f
67.37 710.27 m
67.73 710.63 l
67.73 711.35 l
67.01 711.35 l
67.01 710.63 l
67.37 710.87 l
67.37 710.27 l
67.73 710.27 l
67.73 710.63 l
67.37 710.27 l
f
66.05 710.27 1.32 0.6 re
f
64.61 710.27 m
64.85 710.39 l
65.21 710.27 l
66.05 710.27 l
66.05 710.87 l
65.21 710.87 l
64.85 710.99 l
64.61 710.99 l
64.61 710.27 l
f
63.41 710.27 m
64.13 710.27 l
64.37 710.39 l
64.61 710.27 l
64.61 710.99 l
64.37 710.99 l
64.13 710.87 l
63.41 710.87 l
63.41 710.27 l
f
61.97 710.63 m
62.33 710.27 l
63.41 710.27 l
63.41 710.87 l
62.33 710.87 l
62.69 710.63 l
61.97 710.63 l
61.97 710.27 l
62.33 710.27 l
61.97 710.63 l
f
62.33 711.71 m
61.97 711.35 l
61.97 710.63 l
62.69 710.63 l
62.69 711.35 l
62.33 710.99 l
62.33 711.71 l
61.97 711.71 l
61.97 711.35 l
62.33 711.71 l
f
63.29 711.95 m
63.05 711.83 l
62.93 711.83 l
62.69 711.71 l
62.33 711.71 l
62.33 710.99 l
63.05 711.23 l
63.41 711.23 l
63.65 711.47 l
63.29 711.95 l
f
63.89 712.91 m
63.89 712.79 l
63.65 712.31 l
63.29 711.95 l
63.65 711.47 l
64.13 711.95 l
64.37 712.31 l
64.49 712.79 l
64.49 712.67 l
63.89 712.91 l
f
67.25 716.87 m
67.49 716.51 l
69.89 722.27 l
69.29 722.39 l
66.89 716.63 l
67.25 716.27 l
66.89 716.63 l
66.77 716.27 l
67.25 716.27 l
67.25 716.87 l
f
71.57 716.51 m
71.81 716.87 l
67.25 716.87 l
67.25 716.27 l
71.81 716.27 l
72.17 716.63 l
71.81 716.27 l
72.41 716.27 l
72.17 716.63 l
71.57 716.51 l
f
69.89 722.27 m
69.29 722.27 l
71.57 716.51 l
72.17 716.63 l
69.89 722.39 l
69.29 722.39 l
69.89 722.39 l
69.53 723.23 l
69.29 722.39 l
69.89 722.27 l
f
81.41 724.43 m
81.05 723.83 l
80.69 723.11 l
80.57 722.27 l
80.45 721.31 l
81.17 721.31 l
81.17 722.27 l
81.29 722.87 l
81.65 723.47 l
81.89 724.07 l
81.41 724.43 l
f
83.69 726.11 m
83.45 725.99 l
83.09 725.87 l
82.73 725.63 l
82.49 725.51 l
82.13 725.27 l
81.65 724.79 l
81.41 724.43 l
81.89 724.07 l
82.13 724.31 l
82.25 724.55 l
82.49 724.79 l
82.85 725.03 l
83.57 725.39 l
83.93 725.51 l
83.69 726.11 l
f
86.93 726.71 m
86.57 726.59 l
85.73 726.59 l
85.25 726.47 l
84.89 726.47 l
84.17 726.23 l
83.69 726.11 l
83.93 725.51 l
85.01 725.87 l
85.25 725.87 l
85.73 725.99 l
86.93 725.99 l
86.93 726.71 l
f
91.49 725.75 m
91.37 725.99 l
90.77 726.11 l
90.29 726.23 l
89.09 726.47 l
88.61 726.59 l
88.01 726.59 l
87.53 726.71 l
86.93 726.71 l
86.93 725.99 l
88.61 725.99 l
89.57 725.75 l
90.17 725.63 l
91.13 725.39 l
91.01 725.51 l
91.61 725.75 l
91.37 725.99 l
91.49 725.75 l
f
91.73 725.27 m
91.49 725.75 l
91.01 725.51 l
91.13 725.27 l
91.13 725.51 l
91.73 725.27 l
91.73 725.51 l
91.73 725.27 l
f
91.01 721.79 m
91.37 722.15 l
91.37 723.11 l
91.49 724.07 l
91.61 724.79 l
91.73 725.27 l
91.13 725.51 l
90.89 724.79 l
90.89 724.07 l
90.65 722.15 l
91.01 722.51 l
91.01 721.79 l
91.37 721.79 l
91.37 722.15 l
91.01 721.79 l
f
89.81 722.15 m
90.17 721.79 l
91.01 721.79 l
91.01 722.51 l
90.17 722.51 l
90.41 722.15 l
89.81 722.15 l
89.81 721.79 l
90.17 721.79 l
89.81 722.15 l
f
89.81 723.83 m
89.69 724.07 l
89.81 722.15 l
90.41 722.15 l
90.29 724.07 l
90.17 724.31 l
90.29 724.07 l
90.29 724.19 l
90.17 724.31 l
89.81 723.83 l
f
88.49 724.67 m
89.21 724.19 l
89.45 724.07 l
89.81 723.83 l
90.17 724.31 l
89.93 724.55 l
89.57 724.79 l
89.09 725.03 l
88.73 725.27 l
88.49 724.67 l
f
86.81 725.03 m
87.53 725.03 l
87.77 724.91 l
87.89 724.91 l
88.13 724.79 l
88.37 724.79 l
88.49 724.67 l
88.73 725.27 l
88.49 725.39 l
88.37 725.39 l
88.13 725.51 l
87.77 725.51 l
87.53 725.63 l
86.81 725.63 l
86.81 725.03 l
f
84.89 724.43 m
85.61 724.79 l
85.73 724.91 l
86.09 724.91 l
86.33 725.03 l
86.81 725.03 l
86.81 725.63 l
86.21 725.63 l
85.97 725.51 l
85.61 725.51 l
85.25 725.39 l
85.01 725.27 l
84.65 724.91 l
84.65 725.03 l
84.89 724.43 l
f
84.05 722.51 m
84.05 723.11 l
84.29 723.71 l
84.53 724.07 l
84.89 724.43 l
84.65 725.03 l
84.05 724.55 l
83.69 723.95 l
83.45 723.23 l
83.33 722.51 l
84.05 722.51 l
f
84.77 721.19 m
84.41 721.31 l
84.29 721.67 l
84.05 722.03 l
84.05 722.51 l
83.33 722.51 l
83.45 721.91 l
83.69 721.31 l
84.05 720.83 l
84.53 720.59 l
84.77 721.19 l
f
87.77 720.23 m
86.81 720.47 l
86.33 720.59 l
85.97 720.71 l
85.49 720.83 l
84.77 721.19 l
84.53 720.59 l
84.77 720.47 l
85.01 720.35 l
85.73 720.11 l
87.65 719.63 l
87.77 720.23 l
f
91.37 718.79 m
91.01 718.91 l
90.29 719.39 l
89.81 719.63 l
88.37 719.99 l
87.77 720.23 l
87.65 719.63 l
88.25 719.39 l
89.69 719.03 l
90.05 718.79 l
90.29 718.55 l
90.65 718.43 l
90.89 718.19 l
91.37 718.79 l
f
92.57 715.67 m
92.45 716.63 l
92.21 717.47 l
91.85 718.19 l
91.37 718.79 l
90.89 718.19 l
91.37 717.83 l
91.61 717.23 l
91.85 716.51 l
91.85 715.67 l
92.57 715.67 l
f
91.61 712.31 m
91.61 712.43 l
92.33 713.87 l
92.45 714.71 l
92.57 715.67 l
91.85 715.67 l
91.85 714.83 l
91.73 714.11 l
91.37 713.39 l
91.13 712.67 l
91.13 712.79 l
91.61 712.31 l
f
q
56.69 785.15 73.2 -74.88 re
W n
88.85 710.39 m
88.97 710.39 l
89.33 710.63 l
89.69 710.75 l
90.77 711.47 l
91.61 712.31 l
91.13 712.79 l
90.89 712.43 l
90.65 712.19 l
90.29 711.95 l
90.05 711.71 l
89.69 711.59 l
89.33 711.35 l
89.09 711.23 l
88.73 710.99 l
88.85 710.39 l
f
85.61 709.91 m
85.97 709.91 l
86.33 710.03 l
86.81 710.03 l
87.17 710.15 l
87.65 710.15 l
88.13 710.27 l
88.49 710.27 l
88.85 710.39 l
88.73 710.99 l
88.37 710.87 l
88.01 710.87 l
87.65 710.75 l
87.17 710.75 l
86.81 710.63 l
85.61 710.63 l
85.61 709.91 l
f
80.45 711.23 m
80.57 710.87 l
81.17 710.63 l
81.77 710.51 l
82.49 710.27 l
83.09 710.27 l
84.89 709.91 l
85.61 709.91 l
85.61 710.63 l
84.29 710.63 l
83.09 710.87 l
82.49 710.87 l
81.89 711.11 l
81.41 711.23 l
80.81 711.47 l
81.05 711.23 l
80.45 711.23 l
80.33 710.99 l
80.57 710.87 l
80.45 711.23 l
f
Q
81.05 715.55 m
80.69 715.19 l
80.69 713.87 l
80.57 712.79 l
80.57 711.83 l
80.45 711.23 l
81.05 711.23 l
81.17 711.83 l
81.17 712.79 l
81.29 713.87 l
81.29 715.19 l
81.05 714.83 l
81.05 715.55 l
80.69 715.55 l
80.69 715.19 l
81.05 715.55 l
f
82.25 715.19 m
81.89 715.55 l
81.05 715.55 l
81.05 714.83 l
81.89 714.83 l
81.65 715.19 l
82.25 715.19 l
82.25 715.43 l
81.89 715.55 l
82.25 715.19 l
f
82.49 713.27 m
82.49 713.15 l
82.25 715.19 l
81.65 715.19 l
81.77 713.15 l
82.49 713.27 l
f
83.09 712.55 m
82.85 712.79 l
82.73 713.03 l
82.49 713.15 l
82.49 713.27 l
81.77 713.15 l
82.01 712.79 l
82.13 712.55 l
82.49 712.31 l
82.73 712.07 l
83.09 712.55 l
f
84.29 711.95 m
83.93 712.19 l
83.57 712.31 l
83.09 712.55 l
82.73 712.07 l
83.09 711.83 l
83.45 711.71 l
83.69 711.47 l
84.17 711.35 l
84.29 711.95 l
f
85.85 711.71 m
85.25 711.71 l
85.01 711.83 l
84.77 711.83 l
84.53 711.95 l
84.29 711.95 l
84.17 711.35 l
84.29 711.35 l
84.53 711.23 l
85.01 711.23 l
85.13 711.11 l
85.37 711.11 l
85.61 710.99 l
85.85 710.99 l
85.85 711.71 l
f
87.53 712.07 m
87.29 711.95 l
87.17 711.83 l
86.69 711.83 l
86.45 711.71 l
85.85 711.71 l
85.85 710.99 l
86.09 710.99 l
86.21 711.11 l
86.57 711.11 l
86.81 711.23 l
87.17 711.23 l
87.53 711.35 l
87.77 711.47 l
87.53 712.07 l
f
88.73 712.91 m
88.37 712.67 l
87.89 712.19 l
87.53 712.07 l
87.77 711.47 l
88.13 711.71 l
88.61 711.95 l
88.97 712.19 l
89.21 712.67 l
88.73 712.91 l
f
89.09 714.35 m
89.09 713.87 l
88.97 713.51 l
88.85 713.27 l
88.73 712.91 l
89.21 712.67 l
89.45 713.03 l
89.57 713.39 l
89.69 713.87 l
89.69 714.35 l
89.09 714.35 l
f
88.37 715.79 m
88.25 715.79 l
88.61 715.67 l
88.85 715.31 l
89.09 714.83 l
89.09 714.35 l
89.69 714.35 l
89.69 714.95 l
89.45 715.55 l
89.09 716.03 l
88.61 716.39 l
88.49 716.39 l
88.37 715.79 l
f
85.25 716.87 m
85.85 716.75 l
86.21 716.51 l
86.69 716.39 l
88.13 715.91 l
88.37 715.79 l
88.49 716.39 l
88.01 716.63 l
87.29 716.87 l
86.81 716.99 l
86.45 717.23 l
85.85 717.35 l
85.37 717.47 l
85.25 716.87 l
f
81.77 718.31 m
82.13 718.19 l
82.49 717.83 l
82.97 717.71 l
83.33 717.47 l
83.69 717.35 l
84.29 717.23 l
84.77 716.99 l
85.25 716.87 l
85.37 717.47 l
84.89 717.59 l
84.41 717.83 l
83.93 717.95 l
83.57 718.19 l
83.09 718.31 l
82.85 718.43 l
82.49 718.67 l
82.25 718.79 l
81.77 718.31 l
f
80.45 721.31 m
80.57 721.31 l
80.57 720.47 l
80.93 719.63 l
81.29 718.91 l
81.77 718.31 l
82.25 718.79 l
81.77 719.27 l
81.53 719.87 l
81.17 720.59 l
81.17 721.31 l
80.45 721.31 l
f
95.33 724.43 m
94.85 723.83 l
94.61 723.11 l
94.37 722.27 l
94.37 721.31 l
94.97 721.31 l
94.97 722.27 l
95.45 723.47 l
95.81 724.07 l
95.33 724.43 l
f
97.61 726.11 m
96.89 725.87 l
96.53 725.63 l
96.29 725.51 l
95.93 725.27 l
95.45 724.79 l
95.33 724.43 l
95.81 724.07 l
95.93 724.31 l
96.65 725.03 l
96.89 725.15 l
97.25 725.27 l
97.49 725.39 l
97.85 725.51 l
97.61 726.11 l
f
100.73 726.71 m
100.37 726.59 l
99.53 726.59 l
99.17 726.47 l
98.81 726.47 l
98.33 726.35 l
97.61 726.11 l
97.85 725.51 l
98.09 725.63 l
98.81 725.87 l
99.17 725.87 l
99.53 725.99 l
100.73 725.99 l
100.73 726.71 l
f
105.41 725.75 m
105.17 725.99 l
104.57 726.11 l
104.09 726.23 l
103.49 726.35 l
103.01 726.47 l
102.41 726.59 l
101.93 726.59 l
101.33 726.71 l
100.73 726.71 l
100.73 725.99 l
102.41 725.99 l
102.89 725.87 l
103.49 725.75 l
104.45 725.51 l
105.05 725.39 l
104.81 725.51 l
105.41 725.75 l
105.17 725.99 l
105.41 725.75 l
f
105.53 725.27 m
105.53 725.51 l
105.41 725.75 l
104.81 725.51 l
105.05 725.27 l
104.93 725.51 l
105.53 725.27 l
105.65 725.39 l
105.53 725.51 l
105.53 725.27 l
f
104.93 721.79 m
105.29 722.15 l
105.17 723.11 l
105.29 724.07 l
105.41 724.79 l
105.53 725.27 l
104.93 725.51 l
104.69 724.07 l
104.57 723.11 l
104.57 722.15 l
104.93 722.51 l
104.93 721.79 l
105.29 721.79 l
105.29 722.15 l
104.93 721.79 l
f
103.73 722.15 m
103.97 721.79 l
104.93 721.79 l
104.93 722.51 l
103.97 722.51 l
104.33 722.15 l
103.73 722.15 l
103.73 721.79 l
103.97 721.79 l
103.73 722.15 l
f
103.61 723.83 m
103.49 724.07 l
103.73 722.15 l
104.33 722.15 l
104.09 724.07 l
104.09 724.31 l
104.09 724.07 l
104.09 724.31 l
103.61 723.83 l
f
102.41 724.67 m
102.29 724.67 l
102.65 724.43 l
103.13 724.19 l
103.37 724.07 l
103.61 723.83 l
104.09 724.31 l
102.65 725.27 l
102.53 725.27 l
102.41 724.67 l
f
100.73 725.03 m
101.33 725.03 l
101.57 724.91 l
101.69 724.91 l
101.93 724.79 l
102.17 724.79 l
102.41 724.67 l
102.53 725.27 l
102.41 725.39 l
102.17 725.39 l
101.93 725.51 l
101.69 725.51 l
101.33 725.63 l
100.73 725.63 l
100.73 725.03 l
f
98.81 724.43 m
99.53 724.79 l
99.65 724.91 l
99.89 724.91 l
100.25 725.03 l
100.73 725.03 l
100.73 725.63 l
100.13 725.63 l
99.77 725.51 l
99.53 725.51 l
99.17 725.39 l
98.69 725.15 l
98.45 724.91 l
98.45 725.03 l
98.81 724.43 l
f
97.85 722.51 m
97.85 723.11 l
98.09 723.71 l
98.81 724.43 l
98.45 725.03 l
97.85 724.55 l
97.49 723.95 l
97.25 723.23 l
97.25 722.51 l
97.85 722.51 l
f
98.57 721.19 m
98.33 721.31 l
97.85 722.03 l
97.85 722.51 l
97.25 722.51 l
97.25 721.91 l
97.49 721.31 l
97.85 720.83 l
98.45 720.59 l
98.57 721.19 l
f
101.57 720.23 m
100.61 720.47 l
100.13 720.59 l
99.05 720.95 l
98.57 721.19 l
98.45 720.59 l
98.69 720.47 l
98.93 720.35 l
100.01 719.99 l
100.97 719.75 l
101.57 719.63 l
101.57 720.23 l
f
105.17 718.79 m
104.81 718.91 l
104.09 719.39 l
103.61 719.63 l
103.13 719.75 l
102.77 719.87 l
102.17 719.99 l
101.57 720.23 l
101.57 719.63 l
102.05 719.39 l
103.49 719.03 l
104.21 718.55 l
104.57 718.43 l
104.81 718.19 l
105.17 718.79 l
f
106.49 715.67 m
106.37 716.63 l
106.13 717.47 l
105.65 718.19 l
105.17 718.79 l
104.81 718.19 l
105.17 717.83 l
105.53 717.23 l
105.77 716.51 l
105.77 715.67 l
106.49 715.67 l
f
105.41 712.31 m
105.41 712.43 l
105.89 713.15 l
106.13 713.87 l
106.37 714.71 l
106.49 715.67 l
105.77 715.67 l
105.77 714.83 l
105.29 713.39 l
104.93 712.67 l
104.93 712.79 l
105.41 712.31 l
f
q
56.69 785.15 73.2 -74.88 re
W n
102.77 710.39 m
103.13 710.63 l
103.49 710.75 l
104.93 711.71 l
105.17 712.07 l
105.41 712.31 l
104.93 712.79 l
104.69 712.43 l
103.97 711.71 l
103.61 711.59 l
103.25 711.35 l
102.89 711.23 l
102.53 710.99 l
102.65 710.99 l
102.77 710.39 l
f
99.41 709.91 m
99.89 709.91 l
100.25 710.03 l
100.73 710.03 l
101.09 710.15 l
101.45 710.15 l
101.93 710.27 l
102.29 710.27 l
102.77 710.39 l
102.65 710.99 l
102.29 710.87 l
101.81 710.87 l
101.45 710.75 l
101.09 710.75 l
100.73 710.63 l
99.41 710.63 l
99.41 709.91 l
f
94.25 711.23 m
94.49 710.87 l
94.97 710.63 l
95.69 710.51 l
96.29 710.27 l
96.89 710.27 l
97.49 710.15 l
98.21 710.03 l
98.81 709.91 l
99.41 709.91 l
99.41 710.63 l
98.21 710.63 l
97.01 710.87 l
96.41 710.87 l
95.81 711.11 l
95.21 711.23 l
94.73 711.47 l
94.85 711.23 l
94.25 711.23 l
94.25 710.99 l
94.49 710.87 l
94.25 711.23 l
f
Q
94.85 715.55 m
94.61 715.19 l
94.49 713.87 l
94.37 712.79 l
94.37 711.83 l
94.25 711.23 l
94.85 711.23 l
94.97 711.83 l
94.97 712.79 l
95.09 713.87 l
95.21 715.19 l
94.85 714.83 l
94.85 715.55 l
94.61 715.55 l
94.49 715.19 l
94.85 715.55 l
f
96.05 715.19 m
95.81 715.55 l
94.85 715.55 l
94.85 714.83 l
95.81 714.83 l
95.45 715.19 l
96.05 715.19 l
96.05 715.55 l
95.81 715.55 l
96.05 715.19 l
f
96.29 713.39 m
96.29 713.15 l
96.05 715.19 l
95.45 715.19 l
95.69 713.15 l
95.69 713.03 l
95.69 713.15 l
95.69 713.03 l
96.29 713.39 l
f
96.89 712.55 m
96.65 712.79 l
96.53 713.03 l
96.29 713.15 l
96.29 713.39 l
95.69 713.03 l
95.81 712.79 l
96.53 712.07 l
96.89 712.55 l
f
98.21 711.95 m
97.85 712.19 l
97.49 712.31 l
97.25 712.43 l
96.89 712.55 l
96.53 712.07 l
96.89 711.83 l
97.25 711.71 l
97.61 711.47 l
98.09 711.35 l
97.97 711.35 l
98.21 711.95 l
f
99.65 711.71 m
99.05 711.71 l
98.81 711.83 l
98.57 711.83 l
98.45 711.95 l
98.21 711.95 l
97.97 711.35 l
98.21 711.35 l
98.45 711.23 l
98.81 711.23 l
99.05 711.11 l
99.29 711.11 l
99.41 710.99 l
99.65 710.99 l
99.65 711.71 l
f
101.33 712.07 m
101.09 711.95 l
100.97 711.83 l
100.61 711.83 l
100.37 711.71 l
99.65 711.71 l
99.65 710.99 l
99.89 710.99 l
100.13 711.11 l
100.37 711.11 l
100.73 711.23 l
101.09 711.23 l
101.57 711.47 l
101.33 712.07 l
f
102.53 712.91 m
102.05 712.43 l
101.69 712.19 l
101.33 712.07 l
101.57 711.47 l
101.93 711.59 l
102.41 711.95 l
102.77 712.19 l
103.01 712.67 l
102.53 712.91 l
f
102.89 714.35 m
102.89 713.51 l
102.65 713.27 l
102.53 712.91 l
103.01 712.67 l
103.49 713.39 l
103.49 713.87 l
103.61 714.35 l
102.89 714.35 l
f
102.17 715.79 m
102.53 715.67 l
102.65 715.31 l
102.89 714.83 l
102.89 714.35 l
103.61 714.35 l
103.49 714.95 l
103.25 715.55 l
102.89 716.03 l
102.41 716.39 l
102.17 715.79 l
f
99.17 716.87 m
99.65 716.75 l
100.13 716.51 l
100.61 716.39 l
101.33 716.15 l
101.57 716.03 l
101.93 715.91 l
102.17 715.79 l
102.41 716.39 l
102.17 716.51 l
101.81 716.63 l
101.57 716.75 l
101.21 716.87 l
100.73 716.99 l
100.37 717.23 l
99.77 717.35 l
99.29 717.47 l
99.17 716.87 l
f
95.69 718.31 m
96.05 718.19 l
96.41 717.83 l
96.77 717.71 l
97.25 717.47 l
97.61 717.35 l
98.09 717.23 l
98.57 716.99 l
99.17 716.87 l
99.29 717.47 l
98.69 717.59 l
98.33 717.83 l
97.85 717.95 l
97.37 718.19 l
97.01 718.31 l
96.65 718.43 l
96.29 718.67 l
96.05 718.79 l
95.69 718.31 l
f
94.37 721.31 m
94.49 720.47 l
94.73 719.63 l
95.09 718.91 l
95.69 718.31 l
96.05 718.79 l
95.69 719.27 l
95.33 719.87 l
95.09 720.59 l
94.97 721.31 l
94.37 721.31 l
f
113.69 723.23 m
109.37 712.91 l
109.97 712.67 l
114.29 722.99 l
113.69 723.23 l
f
115.13 726.47 m
114.89 726.23 l
113.69 723.23 l
114.29 722.99 l
115.49 725.99 l
115.13 725.75 l
115.13 726.47 l
115.01 726.47 l
114.89 726.23 l
115.13 726.47 l
f
117.05 726.23 m
116.69 726.47 l
115.13 726.47 l
115.13 725.75 l
116.69 725.75 l
116.45 725.99 l
117.05 726.23 l
116.93 726.47 l
116.69 726.47 l
117.05 726.23 l
f
122.21 714.23 m
117.05 726.23 l
116.45 725.99 l
121.61 713.99 l
122.21 714.23 l
f
122.93 712.43 m
123.05 712.43 l
122.93 712.67 l
122.69 713.03 l
122.57 713.63 l
122.21 714.23 l
121.61 713.99 l
121.97 713.39 l
122.09 712.79 l
122.33 712.43 l
122.45 712.19 l
122.93 712.43 l
f
123.29 711.95 m
123.29 711.83 l
123.29 711.95 l
123.17 712.07 l
123.17 712.19 l
122.93 712.43 l
122.45 712.19 l
122.57 711.95 l
122.69 711.83 l
122.81 711.59 l
122.93 711.47 l
122.93 711.35 l
123.29 711.95 l
f
123.65 711.83 m
123.41 711.95 l
123.53 711.83 l
123.41 711.95 l
123.29 711.95 l
122.93 711.35 l
123.17 711.35 l
123.17 711.23 l
123.41 711.23 l
123.17 711.35 l
123.65 711.83 l
f
123.77 711.83 m
123.65 711.83 l
123.17 711.35 l
123.29 711.23 l
123.53 711.23 l
123.65 711.11 l
123.53 711.23 l
123.77 711.83 l
f
124.01 711.71 m
124.13 711.71 l
124.01 711.71 l
123.89 711.83 l
123.77 711.71 l
123.77 711.83 l
123.53 711.23 l
123.65 711.11 l
123.89 711.11 l
123.77 711.11 l
123.89 711.11 l
124.01 710.99 l
124.01 711.71 l
f
124.85 711.35 m
124.49 711.71 l
124.37 711.59 l
124.25 711.71 l
124.01 711.71 l
124.01 710.99 l
124.13 710.99 l
124.25 711.11 l
124.25 710.99 l
124.49 710.99 l
124.13 711.35 l
124.85 711.35 l
124.85 711.71 l
124.49 711.71 l
124.85 711.35 l
f
124.49 710.27 m
124.85 710.63 l
124.85 711.35 l
124.13 711.35 l
124.13 710.63 l
124.49 710.87 l
124.49 710.27 l
124.85 710.27 l
124.85 710.63 l
124.49 710.27 l
f
120.89 710.27 3.6 0.6 re
f
117.05 710.63 m
117.29 710.27 l
120.89 710.27 l
120.89 710.87 l
117.29 710.87 l
117.65 710.63 l
117.05 710.63 l
117.05 710.27 l
117.29 710.27 l
117.05 710.63 l
f
117.29 711.71 m
117.05 711.35 l
117.05 710.63 l
117.65 710.63 l
117.65 711.35 l
117.29 710.99 l
117.29 711.71 l
117.05 711.71 l
117.05 711.35 l
117.29 711.71 l
f
118.61 711.71 m
117.89 711.71 l
117.65 711.59 l
117.29 711.71 l
117.29 710.99 l
117.65 710.99 l
117.89 711.11 l
118.61 711.11 l
118.61 711.71 l
f
118.73 712.07 m
118.73 711.83 l
118.61 711.83 l
118.61 711.11 l
118.97 711.23 l
119.21 711.47 l
119.33 711.83 l
119.45 712.07 l
118.73 712.07 l
f
118.73 712.43 m
118.73 712.07 l
119.45 712.07 l
119.45 712.31 l
119.33 712.43 l
119.33 712.67 l
118.73 712.43 l
f
117.89 714.95 m
117.65 715.19 l
118.73 712.43 l
119.33 712.67 l
118.25 715.43 l
117.89 715.67 l
118.25 715.43 l
118.13 715.67 l
117.89 715.67 l
117.89 714.95 l
f
112.49 715.19 m
112.25 714.95 l
117.89 714.95 l
117.89 715.67 l
112.25 715.67 l
111.89 715.43 l
112.25 715.67 l
112.01 715.67 l
111.89 715.43 l
112.49 715.19 l
f
112.01 713.99 m
112.25 714.35 l
112.25 714.71 l
112.49 715.19 l
111.89 715.43 l
111.65 714.95 l
111.65 714.59 l
111.41 714.23 l
112.01 713.99 l
f
111.53 712.79 m
111.65 713.03 l
111.77 713.39 l
111.89 713.63 l
112.01 713.99 l
111.41 714.23 l
111.17 713.51 l
111.05 713.27 l
110.93 712.91 l
111.53 712.79 l
f
111.41 712.19 m
111.41 712.43 l
111.53 712.55 l
111.53 712.79 l
110.93 712.91 l
110.93 712.67 l
110.81 712.43 l
110.81 712.31 l
110.69 712.19 l
111.41 712.19 l
f
111.65 711.83 m
111.53 711.83 l
111.53 711.95 l
111.41 712.07 l
111.41 712.19 l
110.69 712.19 l
110.81 711.95 l
110.93 711.59 l
111.05 711.47 l
111.41 711.23 l
111.29 711.23 l
111.65 711.83 l
f
113.21 711.35 m
112.97 711.71 l
112.01 711.71 l
111.65 711.83 l
111.29 711.23 l
111.65 711.23 l
112.37 710.99 l
112.97 710.99 l
112.61 711.35 l
113.21 711.35 l
113.21 711.71 l
112.97 711.71 l
113.21 711.35 l
f
112.97 710.27 m
113.21 710.63 l
113.21 711.35 l
112.61 711.35 l
112.61 710.63 l
112.97 710.87 l
112.97 710.27 l
113.21 710.27 l
113.21 710.63 l
112.97 710.27 l
f
111.53 710.27 1.44 0.6 re
f
110.09 710.27 m
110.45 710.39 l
110.69 710.27 l
111.53 710.27 l
111.53 710.87 l
110.69 710.87 l
110.45 710.99 l
110.09 710.99 l
110.09 710.27 l
f
108.89 710.27 m
109.61 710.27 l
109.85 710.39 l
110.09 710.27 l
110.09 710.99 l
109.85 710.99 l
109.61 710.87 l
108.89 710.87 l
108.89 710.27 l
f
107.45 710.63 m
107.81 710.27 l
108.89 710.27 l
108.89 710.87 l
107.81 710.87 l
108.17 710.63 l
107.45 710.63 l
107.45 710.27 l
107.81 710.27 l
107.45 710.63 l
f
107.81 711.71 m
107.45 711.35 l
107.45 710.63 l
108.17 710.63 l
108.17 711.35 l
107.81 710.99 l
107.81 711.71 l
107.45 711.71 l
107.45 711.35 l
107.81 711.71 l
f
108.77 712.07 m
108.77 711.95 l
108.53 711.83 l
108.29 711.83 l
108.05 711.71 l
107.81 711.71 l
107.81 710.99 l
108.53 711.23 l
108.89 711.23 l
109.13 711.47 l
108.77 712.07 l
f
109.37 712.91 m
109.37 712.79 l
109.13 712.31 l
109.01 712.19 l
108.77 712.07 l
109.13 711.47 l
109.61 711.95 l
109.85 712.31 l
109.97 712.79 l
109.97 712.67 l
109.37 712.91 l
f
112.73 716.87 m
112.97 716.51 l
115.37 722.27 l
114.77 722.39 l
112.37 716.63 l
112.73 716.27 l
112.37 716.63 l
112.25 716.27 l
112.73 716.27 l
112.73 716.87 l
f
117.05 716.51 m
117.29 716.87 l
112.73 716.87 l
112.73 716.27 l
117.29 716.27 l
117.65 716.63 l
117.29 716.27 l
117.89 716.27 l
117.65 716.63 l
117.05 716.51 l
f
115.37 722.27 m
114.77 722.27 l
117.05 716.51 l
117.65 716.63 l
115.37 722.39 l
114.77 722.39 l
115.37 722.39 l
115.01 723.23 l
114.77 722.39 l
115.37 722.27 l
f
60.77 738.29 0.48 -0.12 re
f
60.29 738.17 1.08 -0.12 re
f
60.17 738.05 1.44 -0.12 re
f
60.05 737.93 1.68 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.81 1.8 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.69 1.92 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.57 1.08 -0.12 re
f
61.49 737.57 0.36 -0.12 re
f
58.61 737.45 0.84 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.45 0.96 -0.12 re
f
61.73 737.45 0.24 -0.12 re
f
58.61 737.33 0.84 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.33 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 737.33 0.24 -0.12 re
f
58.61 737.21 0.48 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.21 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 737.21 0.36 -0.12 re
f
58.61 737.09 0.48 -0.12 re
f
59.93 737.09 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 737.09 0.36 -0.12 re
f
58.73 736.97 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.97 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.85 736.97 0.24 -0.12 re
f
58.73 736.85 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.85 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.85 736.85 0.24 -0.12 re
f
58.73 736.73 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.73 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 736.73 0.36 -0.12 re
f
58.73 736.61 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.61 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 736.61 0.48 -0.12 re
f
58.73 736.49 0.36 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.49 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 736.49 0.48 -0.12 re
f
58.85 736.37 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.37 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.73 736.37 0.48 -0.12 re
f
58.85 736.25 0.36 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.25 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.61 736.25 0.6 -0.12 re
f
58.97 736.13 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 736.13 0.84 -0.12 re
f
61.37 736.13 0.96 -0.12 re
f
58.97 736.01 1.8 -0.12 re
f
61.25 736.01 1.08 -0.12 re
f
59.09 735.89 1.68 -0.12 re
f
61.25 735.89 0.36 -0.12 re
f
59.09 735.77 1.68 -0.12 re
f
59.33 735.65 1.08 -0.12 re
f
62.21 735.65 0.12 -0.12 re
f
59.45 735.53 0.96 -0.12 re
f
62.21 735.53 0.36 -0.12 re
f
62.33 735.41 0.36 -0.24 re
f
62.33 735.17 0.48 -0.12 re
f
62.21 735.05 0.6 -0.12 re
f
62.09 734.93 0.84 -0.24 re
f
61.97 734.69 0.96 -0.12 re
f
61.85 734.57 1.2 -0.12 re
f
61.73 734.45 1.32 -0.12 re
f
61.61 734.33 1.56 -0.12 re
f
61.49 734.21 1.8 -0.24 re
f
61.37 733.97 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.93 733.97 0.48 -0.12 re
f
61.25 733.85 1.32 -0.12 re
f
63.17 733.85 0.36 -0.12 re
f
61.13 733.73 1.44 -0.12 re
f
61.13 733.61 1.32 -0.12 re
f
61.01 733.49 1.32 -0.12 re
f
60.89 733.37 1.32 -0.12 re
f
60.77 733.25 1.44 -0.12 re
f
60.77 733.13 1.32 -0.12 re
f
60.65 733.01 1.56 -0.12 re
f
60.53 732.89 1.68 -0.12 re
f
60.41 732.77 1.32 -0.12 re
f
61.97 732.77 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.29 732.65 1.32 -0.12 re
f
61.97 732.65 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.29 732.53 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.09 732.53 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.17 732.41 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.09 732.41 0.36 -0.12 re
f
63.89 732.41 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.05 732.29 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.21 732.29 0.36 -0.12 re
f
64.01 732.29 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.93 732.17 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.21 732.17 0.36 -0.12 re
f
64.01 732.17 0.36 -0.12 re
f
59.93 732.05 1.2 -0.12 re
f
62.33 732.05 0.36 -0.12 re
f
64.13 732.05 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.81 731.93 1.2 -0.12 re
f
62.33 731.93 0.36 -0.12 re
f
64.01 731.93 0.48 -0.12 re
f
59.69 731.81 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.45 731.81 0.36 -0.12 re
f
63.65 731.81 0.84 -0.12 re
f
59.57 731.69 1.32 -0.12 re
f
62.45 731.69 0.36 -0.12 re
f
63.17 731.69 1.32 -0.12 re
f
59.57 731.57 1.2 -0.12 re
f
62.57 731.57 2.16 -0.12 re
f
59.45 731.45 5.28 -0.12 re
f
59.33 731.33 4.68 -0.12 re
f
64.49 731.33 0.36 -0.12 re
f
59.45 731.21 2.88 -0.12 re
f
64.61 731.21 0.24 -0.12 re
f
59.45 731.09 1.68 -0.12 re
f
59.57 730.97 0.96 -0.12 re
f
60.17 740.03 m
60.29 740.15 l
60.41 740.15 l
60.41 740.63 l
60.29 740.75 l
60.17 740.75 l
60.17 740.87 l
60.29 740.99 l
60.77 740.75 l
60.77 740.63 l
60.89 740.63 l
60.89 740.51 l
61.01 740.27 l
61.13 740.15 l
61.13 739.67 l
61.01 739.55 l
60.89 739.55 l
60.77 739.43 l
60.77 739.31 l
60.65 739.31 l
60.53 739.19 l
58.73 738.59 l
58.85 738.23 l
58.73 738.23 l
58.25 738.59 l
58.25 738.47 l
58.13 738.47 l
57.89 738.35 l
57.77 738.35 l
57.65 738.23 l
57.29 738.23 l
57.05 738.47 l
56.93 738.59 l
56.81 738.83 l
56.69 738.95 l
56.69 739.07 l
57.29 739.07 l
57.53 739.19 l
57.89 739.31 l
58.01 739.31 l
58.13 739.43 l
57.77 740.15 l
58.25 740.27 l
58.49 739.55 l
60.17 740.03 l
f*
58.37 755.81 0.72 -0.12 re
f
58.13 755.69 1.44 -0.12 re
f
57.77 755.57 2.04 -0.12 re
f
57.77 755.45 2.28 -0.12 re
f
57.65 755.33 2.52 -0.12 re
f
57.53 755.21 2.76 -0.12 re
f
57.41 755.09 3 -0.24 re
f
57.29 754.85 0.6 -0.12 re
f
59.21 754.85 1.2 -0.12 re
f
57.29 754.73 0.48 -0.12 re
f
59.57 754.73 0.96 -0.12 re
f
57.29 754.61 0.24 -0.12 re
f
60.05 754.61 0.48 -0.12 re
f
57.29 754.49 0.24 -0.12 re
f
60.17 754.49 0.36 -0.12 re
f
57.29 754.37 0.24 -0.12 re
f
60.17 754.37 0.36 -0.12 re
f
57.29 754.25 0.24 -0.12 re
f
60.17 754.25 0.36 -0.12 re
f
57.17 754.13 0.24 -0.12 re
f
60.29 754.13 0.24 -0.12 re
f
57.17 754.01 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.29 754.01 0.24 -0.12 re
f
57.17 753.89 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.29 753.89 0.24 -0.12 re
f
57.29 753.77 0.36 -0.12 re
f
60.17 753.77 0.24 -0.12 re
f
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115.25 775.37 0.72 -0.12 re
f
112.61 775.25 1.08 -0.12 re
f
115.13 775.25 0.84 -0.12 re
f
112.49 775.13 1.2 -0.12 re
f
115.13 775.13 0.84 -0.12 re
f
112.49 775.01 1.08 -0.12 re
f
115.13 775.01 0.84 -0.12 re
f
112.49 774.89 0.96 -0.12 re
f
115.13 774.89 0.84 -0.12 re
f
112.49 774.77 0.84 -0.12 re
f
115.13 774.77 0.96 -0.12 re
f
112.37 774.65 0.84 -0.12 re
f
115.01 774.65 1.08 -0.12 re
f
112.37 774.53 0.84 -0.12 re
f
114.89 774.53 1.2 -0.12 re
f
112.37 774.41 0.84 -0.12 re
f
114.77 774.41 1.2 -0.12 re
f
112.49 774.29 0.72 -0.12 re
f
114.77 774.29 1.08 -0.12 re
f
112.49 774.17 0.72 -0.12 re
f
114.65 774.17 1.2 -0.12 re
f
112.61 774.05 0.6 -0.12 re
f
114.65 774.05 1.08 -0.12 re
f
112.61 773.93 0.6 -0.12 re
f
114.53 773.93 1.2 -0.12 re
f
112.73 773.81 0.48 -0.12 re
f
114.17 773.81 1.44 -0.12 re
f
112.85 773.69 0.48 -0.12 re
f
114.05 773.69 1.44 -0.12 re
f
112.85 773.57 0.72 -0.12 re
f
113.81 773.57 1.56 -0.12 re
f
113.09 773.45 2.16 -0.12 re
f
113.33 773.33 1.8 -0.12 re
f
113.57 773.21 1.44 -0.12 re
f
113.93 773.09 0.72 -0.12 re
f
115.73 772.55 m
116.81 773.39 l
117.05 773.63 l
117.05 773.87 l
116.93 773.87 l
116.93 773.99 l
116.81 774.11 l
117.05 774.23 l
117.17 774.11 l
117.29 774.11 l
117.53 773.87 l
117.65 773.87 l
117.89 773.63 l
118.13 773.51 l
118.13 773.39 l
116.69 772.07 l
116.45 771.83 l
116.33 771.59 l
116.33 771.35 l
116.69 770.99 l
117.29 770.99 l
117.41 771.11 l
118.13 771.71 l
118.25 771.95 l
118.37 772.07 l
118.49 772.07 l
118.49 772.31 l
118.37 772.31 l
118.25 772.43 l
118.25 772.55 l
118.49 772.67 l
118.85 772.31 l
119.21 772.07 l
119.57 771.95 l
119.57 771.83 l
117.53 770.03 l
117.41 770.03 l
117.41 769.91 l
117.29 769.79 l
117.41 769.79 l
117.41 769.67 l
117.53 769.55 l
117.65 769.55 l
117.65 769.43 l
117.41 769.19 l
117.41 769.31 l
117.05 769.67 l
117.05 769.79 l
116.93 769.79 l
116.93 770.03 l
116.69 770.03 l
116.57 770.15 l
116.57 770.27 l
116.45 770.39 l
116.93 770.75 l
115.97 770.75 l
115.61 771.11 l
115.61 771.23 l
115.49 771.35 l
115.49 771.47 l
115.37 771.59 l
115.37 771.71 l
115.49 771.95 l
115.49 772.07 l
115.61 772.19 l
115.61 772.31 l
115.73 772.43 l
115.73 772.55 l
f*
119.21 768.59 m
119.21 768.47 l
119.09 768.47 l
119.09 768.11 l
119.21 768.11 l
119.21 767.87 l
119.33 767.87 l
119.45 767.75 l
119.45 767.63 l
118.73 767.63 l
118.25 768.11 l
118.25 768.47 l
118.13 768.59 l
118.25 768.71 l
118.25 768.83 l
118.49 769.07 l
119.93 770.39 l
119.57 770.63 l
119.69 770.75 l
120.29 770.63 l
120.41 770.75 l
120.41 770.87 l
120.53 770.87 l
120.89 771.23 l
120.89 771.35 l
121.01 771.35 l
121.37 771.23 l
121.61 771.11 l
121.73 770.99 l
121.85 770.99 l
121.97 770.87 l
121.49 770.63 l
120.89 770.03 l
120.77 770.03 l
121.37 769.43 l
121.01 769.07 l
120.53 769.67 l
119.21 768.59 l
f*
122.69 768.95 m
122.81 769.07 l
122.93 769.07 l
123.05 769.19 l
123.05 769.43 l
122.93 769.43 l
122.93 769.67 l
122.81 769.67 l
123.05 769.79 l
123.29 769.67 l
123.53 769.43 l
123.77 769.07 l
124.01 768.83 l
124.13 768.83 l
122.09 767.51 l
122.45 767.51 l
122.57 767.39 l
122.81 767.39 l
122.81 767.27 l
123.05 767.27 l
123.17 767.15 l
123.17 767.03 l
123.29 766.91 l
123.29 766.79 l
123.41 766.67 l
123.41 765.95 l
123.17 765.71 l
122.93 765.59 l
122.69 765.35 l
121.61 764.63 l
121.49 764.63 l
121.37 764.51 l
121.37 764.15 l
121.49 764.03 l
121.25 763.91 l
121.13 764.03 l
121.13 764.15 l
121.01 764.27 l
120.89 764.51 l
120.77 764.63 l
120.77 764.75 l
120.53 764.99 l
122.09 766.07 l
122.33 766.19 l
122.45 766.31 l
122.45 766.43 l
122.57 766.55 l
122.57 766.79 l
122.33 767.03 l
122.33 767.15 l
122.21 767.27 l
121.73 767.27 l
120.41 766.31 l
120.29 766.31 l
120.17 766.19 l
120.17 765.95 l
120.29 765.95 l
120.41 765.71 l
120.17 765.59 l
120.05 765.71 l
120.05 765.83 l
119.93 765.95 l
119.81 765.95 l
119.81 766.19 l
119.57 766.43 l
119.57 766.67 l
119.45 766.67 l
119.45 766.79 l
119.21 767.03 l
119.21 767.15 l
119.09 767.15 l
119.09 767.27 l
119.33 767.39 l
119.33 767.27 l
119.45 767.27 l
119.45 767.15 l
119.57 767.03 l
119.81 767.03 l
119.81 767.15 l
120.05 767.15 l
122.69 768.95 l
f*
123.41 764.21 0.72 -0.12 re
f
123.17 764.09 1.08 -0.12 re
f
122.81 763.97 1.56 -0.12 re
f
122.57 763.85 1.92 -0.12 re
f
122.33 763.73 2.52 -0.12 re
f
122.21 763.61 2.64 -0.12 re
f
122.21 763.49 1.8 -0.12 re
f
124.37 763.49 0.6 -0.12 re
f
122.09 763.37 1.56 -0.12 re
f
124.61 763.37 0.48 -0.12 re
f
121.97 763.25 1.68 -0.12 re
f
124.73 763.25 0.48 -0.12 re
f
121.97 763.13 1.68 -0.12 re
f
124.73 763.13 0.48 -0.12 re
f
121.85 763.01 1.2 -0.12 re
f
123.29 763.01 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.73 763.01 0.48 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.89 0.96 -0.12 re
f
123.41 762.89 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.73 762.89 0.48 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.77 0.96 -0.12 re
f
123.41 762.77 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.73 762.77 0.6 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.65 0.84 -0.12 re
f
123.53 762.65 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.61 762.65 0.72 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.53 0.84 -0.12 re
f
123.53 762.53 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.49 762.53 0.84 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.41 0.72 -0.12 re
f
123.53 762.41 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.25 762.41 0.96 -0.12 re
f
121.85 762.29 0.72 -0.12 re
f
123.65 762.29 1.56 -0.12 re
f
121.97 762.17 0.6 -0.12 re
f
123.65 762.17 1.56 -0.12 re
f
121.97 762.05 0.6 -0.12 re
f
123.77 762.05 1.44 -0.12 re
f
122.09 761.93 0.48 -0.12 re
f
123.77 761.93 1.32 -0.12 re
f
122.09 761.81 0.48 -0.12 re
f
123.89 761.81 1.08 -0.12 re
f
122.09 761.69 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.01 761.69 0.84 -0.12 re
f
122.09 761.57 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.01 761.57 0.72 -0.12 re
f
122.21 761.45 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.13 761.45 0.36 -0.12 re
f
122.33 761.33 0.6 -0.12 re
f
122.45 761.21 0.48 -0.12 re
f
122.57 761.09 0.6 -0.12 re
f
122.69 760.97 0.36 -0.12 re
f
123.65 759.95 m
125.21 760.55 l
125.45 760.55 l
125.45 760.67 l
125.57 760.67 l
125.57 761.15 l
125.81 761.27 l
125.81 761.03 l
125.93 760.91 l
126.05 760.67 l
126.05 760.55 l
126.17 760.55 l
126.17 760.43 l
126.29 760.31 l
126.41 760.07 l
126.41 759.95 l
125.81 759.71 l
126.05 759.71 l
126.17 759.59 l
126.29 759.47 l
126.41 759.47 l
126.53 759.35 l
126.65 759.35 l
126.65 759.11 l
126.77 759.11 l
126.77 758.87 l
125.93 758.63 l
125.81 758.75 l
125.81 758.87 l
125.93 758.99 l
125.93 759.23 l
125.81 759.23 l
125.81 759.47 l
125.69 759.47 l
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125.33 759.59 l
123.89 759.11 l
123.65 759.11 l
123.65 758.75 l
123.77 758.63 l
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123.65 758.39 l
123.41 758.39 l
123.41 758.63 l
123.29 758.87 l
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123.17 759.59 l
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123.05 759.83 l
122.93 759.95 l
122.93 760.31 l
123.17 760.43 l
123.17 760.31 l
123.29 760.19 l
123.29 759.95 l
123.65 759.95 l
f*
126.53 758.33 0.24 -0.36 re
f
126.53 757.97 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.41 757.85 0.6 -0.12 re
f
123.77 757.73 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.17 757.73 0.84 -0.12 re
f
123.89 757.61 0.24 -0.12 re
f
125.45 757.61 1.68 -0.12 re
f
123.89 757.49 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.97 757.49 2.16 -0.12 re
f
123.89 757.37 3.36 -0.24 re
f
124.01 757.13 3.36 -0.12 re
f
124.01 757.01 2.76 -0.12 re
f
124.01 756.89 2.28 -0.12 re
f
126.41 756.89 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.13 756.77 1.68 -0.12 re
f
126.77 756.77 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.13 756.65 1.2 -0.12 re
f
126.77 756.65 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.13 756.53 0.84 -0.12 re
f
126.77 756.53 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.13 756.41 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.89 756.41 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.13 756.29 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.89 756.29 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.25 756.17 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.89 756.17 0.6 -0.12 re
f
124.25 756.05 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.89 756.05 0.72 -0.12 re
f
126.77 755.93 0.84 -0.12 re
f
126.65 755.81 0.96 -0.12 re
f
126.41 755.69 1.2 -0.12 re
f
126.17 755.57 1.44 -0.12 re
f
125.33 755.45 2.28 -0.12 re
f
124.73 755.33 2.88 -0.12 re
f
124.37 755.21 3.12 -0.12 re
f
124.49 755.09 2.88 -0.12 re
f
124.49 754.97 2.64 -0.12 re
f
124.49 754.85 2.04 -0.12 re
f
124.49 754.73 1.44 -0.12 re
f
124.61 754.61 0.84 -0.12 re
f
124.61 754.49 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.61 754.37 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.61 754.25 0.24 -0.36 re
f
124.73 753.89 0.24 -0.12 re
f
125.09 749.45 0.24 -0.48 re
f
125.09 748.97 0.36 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.85 0.6 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.73 0.72 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.61 1.08 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.49 1.32 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.37 1.68 -0.12 re
f
125.09 748.25 0.24 -0.12 re
f
125.93 748.25 1.08 -0.12 re
f
124.97 748.13 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.17 748.13 1.08 -0.12 re
f
124.97 748.01 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.41 748.01 1.2 -0.12 re
f
124.97 747.89 0.36 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.89 1.44 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.77 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.25 747.77 0.96 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.65 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.49 747.65 0.96 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.53 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.73 747.53 0.96 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.41 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.97 747.41 0.96 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.29 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.21 747.29 1.08 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.17 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.45 747.17 1.2 -0.12 re
f
126.41 747.05 0.36 -0.12 re
f
128.69 747.05 1.2 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.93 0.36 -0.12 re
f
128.21 746.93 1.68 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.81 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.85 746.81 2.04 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.69 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.37 746.69 2.52 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.57 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.01 746.57 2.88 -0.12 re
f
124.97 746.45 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.45 3.12 -0.12 re
f
124.97 746.33 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.33 2.88 -0.12 re
f
124.97 746.21 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.41 746.21 2.52 -0.12 re
f
124.97 746.09 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.05 746.09 2.64 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.97 0.36 -0.12 re
f
125.81 745.97 2.52 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.85 3.12 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.73 2.88 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.61 2.52 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.49 2.28 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.37 1.92 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.25 1.68 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.13 1.44 -0.12 re
f
124.97 745.01 1.2 -0.12 re
f
124.97 744.89 0.96 -0.12 re
f
124.97 744.77 0.48 -0.12 re
f
124.97 744.65 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.97 744.53 0.24 -0.36 re
f
124.85 743.93 0.12 -0.48 re
f
124.73 743.45 0.24 -0.12 re
f
127.37 743.45 0.12 -0.12 re
f
124.73 743.33 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.37 743.33 0.24 -0.12 re
f
124.73 743.21 0.72 -0.12 re
f
127.37 743.21 0.24 -0.12 re
f
124.73 743.09 2.04 -0.12 re
f
127.37 743.09 0.36 -0.12 re
f
124.73 742.97 3 -0.12 re
f
124.73 742.85 3.48 -0.12 re
f
124.73 742.73 3.84 -0.12 re
f
124.73 742.61 4.08 -0.12 re
f
124.61 742.49 4.32 -0.12 re
f
124.61 742.37 0.24 -0.12 re
f
125.21 742.37 3.72 -0.12 re
f
124.61 742.25 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.05 742.25 3 -0.12 re
f
124.61 742.13 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.77 742.13 2.28 -0.12 re
f
124.61 742.01 0.24 -0.12 re
f
127.13 742.01 2.04 -0.12 re
f
124.49 741.89 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.13 741.89 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.69 741.89 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.13 741.77 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.81 741.77 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.13 741.65 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.93 741.65 0.36 -0.12 re
f
127.01 741.53 0.6 -0.12 re
f
128.93 741.53 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.01 741.41 0.6 -0.12 re
f
128.93 741.41 0.48 -0.12 re
f
127.01 741.29 0.6 -0.12 re
f
128.93 741.29 0.6 -0.12 re
f
127.01 741.17 0.48 -0.12 re
f
128.93 741.17 0.6 -0.12 re
f
128.69 741.05 0.84 -0.12 re
f
128.69 740.93 0.72 -0.24 re
f
124.85 740.75 m
126.29 740.39 l
126.41 740.27 l
126.65 740.27 l
126.89 740.51 l
126.89 740.63 l
127.01 740.63 l
127.01 740.75 l
127.25 740.63 l
127.25 740.27 l
127.13 740.15 l
127.13 739.19 l
126.41 739.31 l
126.53 739.19 l
126.65 739.19 l
126.65 739.07 l
126.89 738.83 l
126.89 738.59 l
127.01 738.59 l
127.01 738.35 l
126.89 738.23 l
126.89 738.11 l
125.93 738.35 l
125.93 738.47 l
126.05 738.59 l
126.17 738.59 l
126.17 738.71 l
126.29 738.71 l
126.29 739.19 l
126.17 739.19 l
126.17 739.55 l
126.05 739.55 l
124.49 739.79 l
124.25 739.79 l
124.13 739.67 l
124.13 739.55 l
124.01 739.55 l
124.01 739.31 l
123.77 739.31 l
123.89 739.55 l
123.89 739.79 l
124.01 740.15 l
124.13 740.63 l
124.13 740.99 l
124.25 741.11 l
124.25 741.35 l
124.49 741.23 l
124.49 740.75 l
124.85 740.75 l
f*
123.53 738.53 0.12 -0.24 re
f
123.41 738.29 0.24 -0.36 re
f
123.29 737.93 0.72 -0.12 re
f
123.29 737.81 1.08 -0.12 re
f
123.29 737.69 1.32 -0.12 re
f
123.17 737.57 1.8 -0.12 re
f
126.17 737.57 0.24 -0.12 re
f
123.17 737.45 2.04 -0.12 re
f
126.17 737.45 0.24 -0.12 re
f
123.17 737.33 2.28 -0.12 re
f
126.05 737.33 0.36 -0.12 re
f
123.17 737.21 3.24 -0.12 re
f
123.05 737.09 0.24 -0.12 re
f
123.53 737.09 2.76 -0.12 re
f
123.05 736.97 0.12 -0.12 re
f
123.65 736.97 2.64 -0.12 re
f
122.93 736.85 0.24 -0.12 re
f
124.13 736.85 2.16 -0.12 re
f
124.49 736.73 1.8 -0.12 re
f
124.85 736.61 1.44 -0.12 re
f
127.13 736.61 0.6 -0.12 re
f
125.21 736.49 1.08 -0.12 re
f
127.01 736.49 0.84 -0.12 re
f
125.57 736.37 0.6 -0.12 re
f
127.01 736.37 0.96 -0.12 re
f
125.93 736.25 0.24 -0.12 re
f
126.89 736.25 1.08 -0.36 re
f
127.01 735.89 0.84 -0.24 re
f
124.97 733.19 m
124.85 733.07 l
124.85 732.95 l
124.61 732.71 l
124.49 732.71 l
124.37 732.83 l
123.65 733.19 l
123.77 733.43 l
124.13 733.31 l
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[( Robert Burnham Jr)59.9(.)]TJ
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( Alan MacRobert)Tj
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[(1)42.2(1x80)]TJ
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[(Phil Harrington)]TJ
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[(T)71.7(elescopes are available in two basic types;)]TJ
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0.0017 Tw
(The size of a telescope is specified by the di-)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.04 Tw
[(ameter of its lar)24.5(gest optics \(primary mirror or)]TJ
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0.0313 Tw
(objective\), traditionally expressed in inches.)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
0.021 Tw
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0.0351 Tw
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0.0228 Tw
(popular line of telescopes in the United States)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0514 Tw
[(sports a 17.5-inch \(44cm\) mirror)36.2(, and even 25-)]TJ
T*
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0.056 Tw
(inch \(63cm\) mirrors are available commercial-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0282 Tw
[(ly)60.8(. Refractors, on the other hand, typically)]TJ
T*
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0.0355 Tw
(have 2- to 5-inch \(5 to 13cm\) lenses. The main)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.02 Tw
(reason for the popularity of the reflector is its)Tj
T*
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0.0271 Tw
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T*
0.0265 Tw
(while a 6-inch reflector can be as inexpensive)Tj
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(as $500! Other considerations, such as size)Tj
T*
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0.0419 Tw
[(and transportability)60.6(, also favour the reflector)48.6(.)]TJ
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0.0008 Tc
0.0191 Tw
(Bigger is better in deep-sky observing. The)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0417 Tw
[(lar)12.5(ger the objective \(primary mirror or lens\),)]TJ
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0.0272 Tw
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0.0131 Tw
(escope used in the city can never show the)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0269 Tw
(faint objects that can be seen with a smaller)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0305 Tw
[(telescope used under dark skies. And a lar)12.7(ge)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0057 Tw
(telescope that is too cumbersome to use will)Tj
20.292 28.728 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.045 Tw
(remain in the garage or loft, collecting dust)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0287 Tw
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0.0195 Tw
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T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0307 Tw
(possible to grind your own mirror and assem-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0175 Tw
[(ble the telescope yourself. But that)48.6(s another)]TJ
T*
-0.0034 Tc
0 Tw
[(story)56.6(.\))]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0066 Tw
[(T)71.3(elescopes can be mounted in two basic)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0324 Tw
[(ways. The simplest mount is known as the alt-)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.04 Tw
(azimuth configuration. The telescope moves)Tj
T*
0.045 Tw
(around two axes, up-down and left-right, with)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.05 Tw
(the whole mounting standing level with the)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.062 Tw
(ground. Binoculars mounted on a photograph-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(ic tripod is an example of an alt-azimuth)]TJ
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0.03 Tw
[(mounting. Nearly all professional telescopes)]TJ
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0.0006 Tc
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(are mounted in an equatorial configuration.)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(The scope still moves around two axes, but the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(whole mounting is now tilted upwards, point-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(ing to the celestial pole of the sky)72.8(. Mounted in)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.035 Tw
(this fashion, it now swings east-west and)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0407 Tw
(north-south. If a motor is attached to the)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0219 Tw
(mount, the telescope can be made to turn slow-)Tj
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(ly towards the east at the same rate that the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0456 Tw
[(stars move westward. In this manner)48.4(, a star re-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0378 Tw
[(mains in view)72.6(, with the telescope tracking it)]TJ
T*
0.0061 Tc
0 Tw
[(continually)66.1(.)]TJ
/TT2 1 Tf
12 0 0 12 158.21 453.59 Tm
-0.0007 Tc
0.0418 Tw
[(1.3.2 T)69.3(elescopes)]TJ
/TT5 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 67.97 455.63 Tm
0.0002 Tc
0.0684 Tw
(Most objects)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0331 Tw
[(within r)38.4(each of any)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(telescope, no matter)Tj
T*
0.0298 Tw
[(how lar)38.3(ge or small)]TJ
T*
-0.0003 Tc
0.0319 Tw
[(it is, ar)25(e bar)37.6(ely)]TJ
T*
0.0012 Tc
0.0138 Tw
[(within r)26.5(each. . . . If)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0737 Tw
[(flashy visuals ar)25.6(e)]TJ
T*
0.0501 Tw
[(what your)38.2(e after)114(,)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0076 Tw
[(go watch TV)127.2(.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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0 Tw
( )Tj
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(Equipment)Tj
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T*
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0.0333 Tw
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T*
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0.0172 Tw
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0 -1.2 TD
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0.0006 Tc
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[(find your way about the night sky)72.6(. It is one of)]TJ
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(the most important observing aids for the as-)Tj
T*
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[(tronomer)43.8(.)]TJ
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[(drawn by master cartographer W)36.4(il T)36.4(irion,)]TJ
T*
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0.045 Tw
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T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0144 Tw
(the faintest you can see with the naked eye)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0036 Tw
(from a good suburban site. Many deep-sky ob-)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0417 Tw
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T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.075 Tw
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T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0021 Tw
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T*
0.0008 Tc
0.038 Tw
(charts. These charts are exceptional because)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(the whole night sky is shown on only 5 A3-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0186 Tw
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T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0559 Tw
(binoculars, and their handy size make them)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0379 Tw
[(easy to transport and use. For the beginner)48.7(,)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0308 Tw
[(these charts are ar)13(guably the best available,)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0333 Tw
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T*
0.0011 Tc
0.065 Tw
[(into clear)49.1(, understandable sections.)]TJ
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0.0008 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(The more experienced telescopic observer)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0486 Tw
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T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0025 Tw
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11.316 0 TD
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[( atlas, published in 1987 by W)35.9(illmann-)]TJ
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T*
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T*
0.0421 Tw
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T*
0.0073 Tc
0 Tw
[(r)30.1(ealms.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
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( Alan MacRobert)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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-0.0007 Tc
0.0125 Tw
[(1.3.3 Star atlases)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 361.13 455.15 Tm
0.0007 Tc
0.025 Tw
(Bell, is an excellent star atlases. A two-volume)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.058 Tw
(set, it contains 473 computer-generated charts,)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0421 Tw
(showing 330 000 stars down to magnitude 9.5.)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.011 Tw
(The complete Revised New General Catalogue)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0341 Tw
(\(RNGC\) and an additional 10 300 deep-sky)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0143 Tw
(objects are shown. Each volume has a two-)Tj
T*
0.059 Tw
(page hemisphere starmap which indexes the)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0413 Tw
[(charts in that volume, making it easy to find)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0344 Tw
(the chart you need. The index maps are also)Tj
T*
-0.0021 Tw
(very useful to help you orient yourself when)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(you start your observing session.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0229 Tw
(The current Rolls Royce of printed star at-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0015 Tc
0.0466 Tw
(lases is the )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
4.74 0 TD
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(Millenium Star Atlas)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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(. Even though)Tj
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0.0457 Tw
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(Uranometria)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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(, it shows much fainter stars)Tj
-6.744 -1.2 TD
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[(\(down to 1)36.5(1th visual magnitude\) and covers)]TJ
T*
(the sky in 1 548 charts!)Tj
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[(Deepsky observing is done in the dark. W)72.5(ell,)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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[(almost. Y)96.3(ou will need some light to read the)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
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T*
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0.0321 Tw
[(hot cof)12.1(fee. A normal torch, useful during a)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0221 Tw
(power cut, is unusable at the telescope. Astron-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0407 Tw
(omers traditionally use a dim red flashlight be-)Tj
T*
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[(cause red light has less ef)12.6(fect on night vision.)]TJ
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0.0004 Tc
0.0079 Tw
[(Simply place suf)12.4(ficient layers of dark red cello-)]TJ
T*
0.0344 Tw
(phane \(used for gift wrapping\) in front of the)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0475 Tw
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0.0009 Tc
0.0426 Tw
[(light. Y)108.9(ou can also paint the bulb with red nail)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.072 Tw
(polish for a more permanent arrangement.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0266 Tw
(Because of the notorious nature of human)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
-0.0002 Tc
-0.0019 Tw
[(memory)71.8(, you will need some way of recording)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0125 Tw
(your observations. At the telescope, a pencil)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0325 Tw
(and writing pad on a clipboard works well, as)Tj
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0.0261 Tw
[(does a Dictaphone or tape recorder)60.7(. I find us-)]TJ
T*
0.0564 Tw
(ing a small Dictaphone easier than writing de-)Tj
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(scriptions by hand, partially because my hand-)Tj
T*
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0.0257 Tw
(writing is illegible but mainly because it is)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0225 Tw
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T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0516 Tw
(expression. For sketching, a dark pencil, eraser)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0175 Tw
(and clipboard are useful, as well as sheets of)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.06 Tw
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0.0001 Tc
0.0183 Tw
[(field of view)72.1(. Whichever record keeping meth-)]TJ
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(od you choose, you should note the date and)Tj
T*
0.0183 Tw
(time of the observation, where the observation)Tj
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[(sky)72.7(. Record the sky conditions \(seeing and)]TJ
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0.049 Tw
(transparency\) and also include comments on)Tj
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T*
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0.028 Tw
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0.025 Tw
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T*
0.0316 Tw
[(This ensures you don)24.4(t for)24.4(get some important)]TJ
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0.0275 Tw
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0.0308 Tw
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T*
0.0004 Tc
0.015 Tw
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T*
-0.0033 Tc
0 Tw
[(observer)56.7(.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.008 Tw
(Remember to dress appropriately for your)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0525 Tw
(observing session. Jeans and a T-shirt might)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.03 Tw
(be fine for warm summer nights, but cold win-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0372 Tw
[(ter nights demand a wiser choice. Jeans won)24.4(t)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0172 Tw
(keep your legs warm enough - wear a pair of)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0649 Tw
[(long-johns underneath. T)72.6(wo tracksuit pants -)]TJ
T*
0.0177 Tw
(instead of the jeans - also work well. A sensi-)Tj
T*
0.01 Tw
(ble jacket, with several pockets, can be worn)Tj
T*
0.0205 Tw
(over a jersey and shirt to keep the upper part of)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
-0.0093 Tw
[(your body warm. W)71.8(ear two pairs of woolly)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0081 Tw
(socks and make sure your shoes or boots pro-)Tj
20.292 61.128 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0265 Tw
[(vide insulation, so that your feet don)24.6(t leak)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0419 Tw
(heat to the ground. Most important of all, pro-)Tj
T*
0.0299 Tw
[(tect your extremities. Y)96.6(our nose, ears and fin-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0157 Tw
[(gers will loose heat more quickly)72.5(. A balaclava)]TJ
T*
0.03 Tw
[(and scarf will serve admirably)60.5(, and a pair of)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0267 Tw
(warm, non-bulky mittens will keep your fin-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0333 Tw
(gers agile and comfortable.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0067 Tw
(Observers often overlook the fact that they)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0249 Tw
[(will be spending a considerable amount of)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0186 Tw
[(time sitting at the eyepiece. Make sure your)]TJ
T*
0.0292 Tw
(chair is comfortable and supports you in the)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.04 Tw
(right places. Bear in mind that the eyepiece)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0457 Tw
[(will not be at a constant height throughout the)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0214 Tw
(night; some form of adjustable chair may be)Tj
T*
0.03 Tw
(needed. When observing with my binoculars, I)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0335 Tw
(use a plastic milk crate \(either on end or on its)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0375 Tw
[(side\) and various cushions for fine adjustment.)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0169 Tw
(Be careful not to strain your back or neck)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0157 Tw
(when observing you grow tired much soon-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
(er and your overall performance is adversely)Tj
T*
-0.0056 Tc
0 Tw
[(af)18.4(fected.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.02 Tw
[(Don)23.9(t for)11.9(get to pack in some snacks. Some-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.03 Tw
(thing hot to drink after you have just found)Tj
T*
0.0319 Tw
(that elusive galaxy adds to the reward. A sand-)Tj
T*
0.025 Tw
(wich, or some chocolate adds a little extra)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0083 Tw
(boost during your vigil at the eyepiece.)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 67.97 698.39 Tm
0.0005 Tc
0.028 Tw
(If the hours we)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.05 Tw
(spend under the)Tj
T*
0.077 Tw
[(stars ar)25.7(e pr)50.9(ecious,)]TJ
T*
0.0474 Tw
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T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0741 Tw
[(helps us r)38.1(emember)]TJ
T*
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0.0315 Tw
(them. Relying on)Tj
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(memory alone just)Tj
T*
0.0341 Tw
[(isn)114.1(t good enough;)]TJ
T*
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0.0439 Tw
(as years pass, de-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0298 Tw
(tails fade away until)Tj
T*
0.0316 Tw
(events might as well)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0263 Tw
(not have hap-)Tj
T*
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(pened.)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0005 Tc
-0.0404 Tw
( David H. Levy)Tj
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
0.0081 Tc
0 Tw
(Equipment)Tj
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BT
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T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0061 Tw
(idea to do some homework before you go out to)Tj
T*
0.0279 Tw
(observe. Find out when the moon rises and)Tj
T*
0.0175 Tw
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T*
0.0005 Tc
0.03 Tw
(have to observe without the moon interfering.)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0044 Tw
[(Draw up a list of objects to view)60.4(. When select-)]TJ
T*
0.0322 Tw
(ing an object, make sure it will be high enough)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0307 Tw
(above the horizon so that the murky atmos-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0574 Tw
[(phere doesn)12.8(t interfere.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0117 Tw
(If you are going to draw up your own lists,)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0129 Tw
(begin by looking for some of the brighter)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.007 Tw
(showpiece objects, and then slowly graduate)Tj
T*
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[(to more dif)24.8(ficult tar)24.8(gets as your observational)]TJ
T*
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T*
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T*
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(The Deep-sky Observing Section currently)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(o)5.8(f)24.8(fers three observing projects. The first)]TJ
T*
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[(project is for the beginner)36.6(, and calls for the ob-)]TJ
T*
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(servation of 31 bright objects. These objects)Tj
T*
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(logue drawn up by )Tj
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(Lacaille )Tj
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(\(see page 32 and)Tj
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(Appendix 1\). The second project concentrates)Tj
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(Jack Bennett )Tj
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(\(see page 39 and Appendix)Tj
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(4\), comet hunter and dedicated amateur as-)Tj
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[(tronomer)48.4(. Bennett)48.4(s catalogue contains 152 ob-)]TJ
T*
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(jects which appear comet-like in smaller tele-)Tj
T*
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(The third project is dedicated to the work of)Tj
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(Sir John Herschel)Tj
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(to systematically survey the whole night sky)Tj
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T*
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(catalogue of deep-sky objects. Between 1834)Tj
T*
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(and 1838 he stayed at the Cape of Good Hope)Tj
T*
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(to work on the southern portion of his cata-)Tj
T*
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(logue, which formed the basis of the NGC)Tj
T*
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(\(New General Catalogue\) which is still in use)Tj
T*
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[(today)60.6(. The Herschel project involves the study)]TJ
T*
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(of 400 of these objects.)Tj
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[(Herschel)60.7(s work at the Cape is discussed on)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(pages 3435 and in Appendix 3.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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-0.0014 Tc
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[(1.4 Planning your observing)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
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0.0008 Tc
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[(1. Dr)24.8(ess appr)24.8(opriately)60.8(.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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[(Comfort is everything in backyard astronomy)60.2(.)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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(If youre not warm enough, standing out there)Tj
T*
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(under a star-filled sky in no fun at all. Com-)Tj
T*
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(mon sense, folks. I prefer to bring along sever-)Tj
T*
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(al layers of clothing \(e.g. warm longjons,)Tj
T*
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(sweatsuit pants, jeans\) and wear as needed.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
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(2. Snack food.)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
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(Food is an essential part of any observing kit.)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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[(My favourite is filter cof)12.5(fee and rusks. A good)]TJ
T*
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[(sandwich is most welcome after a few hour)-35.9()57.1(s)]TJ
T*
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(observing. And sweets like winegums last a l o)Tj
T*
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(n g time, although the eternal mastication they)Tj
T*
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(induce can unsteady your view at the eyepiece!)Tj
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[(3. Bug r)24.9(epellant.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
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[(Mossies. Bane of the deepsky observer)60.5(. Noth-)]TJ
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(1.4.2 Preparing for an observing session)Tj
0 32.33 TD
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(1.4.1 Planning an observing programme)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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(ing is more ominous than the high-pitched)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(whine of these blood-sucking pests. Bug spray)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(or lotion neatly solves the problem, although I)Tj
T*
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(regularly carry a tube of skin lotion, just in)Tj
T*
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(case one of them get a bite in first.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
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[(4. T)83.7(o)-4.5(r)23.7(ches)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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(.)Tj
-4.392 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
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(Besides your trusty red torch for observing,)Tj
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(make sure you have enough batteries just in)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(case. Since your observing light should be ex-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(tremely faint, pack in a normal \(unfiltered\))Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.025 Tw
(torch that you can use to pack up with, or)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0217 Tw
(check if youve left anything behind. And)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0348 Tw
[(don)25(t for)13(get the batteries.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
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(5. Observing notebook)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
9.684 0 TD
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(.)Tj
-9.684 -1.764 TD
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[(Don)12.2(t for)24.2(get your notebook. Even if you use a)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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(dictaphone, one often needs to make notes.)Tj
T*
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(And of course you should be sketching. . .)Tj
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(Planning)Tj
ET
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[(. Y)108.4(oull need somewhere to)]TJ
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[(put all the stuf)24.9(f youve packed in. I carry all)]TJ
T*
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[(my maps, books, notebooks and stuf)23.9(f in sev-)]TJ
T*
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(eral milk-crates, each measuring 29 x 35 x)Tj
T*
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[(53cm. These stack securely one on the other)36.4(,)]TJ
T*
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(making a handy table. Sometimes, an extra)Tj
T*
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(chair is also handy as a make-shift table.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
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(7. Comfortable chair)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
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[(It)48.9(s likely that youll be sitting for a long while)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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(behind your eyepiece. Make sure the chair you)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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[(pack in is comfortable and sturdy)60(. Some deck)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0317 Tw
[(chairs simply don)12.5(t work well with tripod-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(mounted binoculars, since their wide, splayed)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.01 Tw
[(legs often get in the way)60.2(. I enjoy moving)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0083 Tw
[(around while observing at the telescope)60.9(s eye-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(piece, so I rarely sit down while observing. But)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
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(the periods of standing are regulary interrupt-)Tj
T*
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(ed by moments of sitting down, making notes,)Tj
T*
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[(planning, and just enjoying the night sky)72.7(.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
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[(8. Pr)24.6(otect starmaps fr)24.6(om dew)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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(The best way to protect your staratlas from)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(dew is to keep it indoors. I make photocopies)Tj
T*
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(of each map I use at the eyepiece. I like scrib-)Tj
T*
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[(bling notes in the mar)24.4(gin of the maps, and)]TJ
20.292 29.868 TD
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(refuse to do so on the original book. The loose-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(leaf photocopied A4 pages fit well in plastic)Tj
T*
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(sleeves. For complex regions requiring several)Tj
T*
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(maps, I suggest you use the 20-page plastic)Tj
T*
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(sleeve files, which will hold 40 maps back-to-)Tj
T*
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(back. Also, a stack of maps, held in place on a)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
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(clipboard, is well protected if a plastic sheet)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0083 Tw
[(tops of)24.5(f the pile.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
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(9. Zap the dew on your optics)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0005 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
(Having your eyepieces dew up can unexpected-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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0.0063 Tw
(ly end your observing session. A blast of hot)Tj
T*
0.0113 Tw
(air for a few seconds will defog the dampest)Tj
T*
0.02 Tw
(eyepieces, mirrors or lenses. Commercially)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.012 Tw
(available dew zappers are basically modified)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0525 Tw
(electric hair dryers.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
9 0 0 9 158.21 349.91 Tm
0.0028 Tc
0.1279 Tw
[(Fur)-10.5(ther r)16.1(eading:)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
0 -1.3467 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0307 Tw
[(Barclay)67.4(, J. \(1994\) Under the Southern Sky Astronomy)67.4(, October)40.7(, 72.)]TJ
0 -1.52 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0416 Tw
[(Cain, L. \(1986\) Observer)-39.7()53.3(s)-0.2( Page: V)67(isual astronomy rediscovered. Sky & T)67(elescope, 72\(6, December\),)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.01 Tc
0 Tw
(662)Tj
0 -1.52 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0297 Tw
[(Dodd, L. \(1994\) Under the Southern Sky: Part 2 Astronomy)66.9(, December)40.2(, 78.)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.036 Tw
[(Eicher)40.3(, D. \(1985\) Stars of the Circumpolar South [double-page map] Astronomy)80.3(, March, 34.)]TJ
0 -1.5067 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0413 Tw
[(Eicher)40.5(, D. J. \(1989\) Don)13.8(t For)27.2(get the Bug Spray [Be prepared for anything under the stars with these ten)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
0.0388 Tw
[(essential items. Don)26.7(t leave home without them!] Astronomy)66.7(, August, 67.)]TJ
0 -1.52 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0331 Tw
[(Forrest, S. \(1989\) Forum: T)40.2(ricks of an Observer)-39.8()53.2(s)1.9( T)40.2(rade Astronomy)66.9(, August, 98.)]TJ
T*
0.0532 Tw
[(Harrington, P)106.9(.)0( \(1994\) Running a Celestial Marathon [One night, 1)40.2(10 deep-sky wonders. Observe them all)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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0.0345 Tw
[(and youve comleted the grueling Messier Marathon] Astronomy)67.2(, March, 61.)]TJ
0 -1.52 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0417 Tw
[(Houston, W)67.1(alter Scott \(1980\) Observing the deep sky)67.1(. Sky & T)80.4(elescope, 60\(6, December\), 476.)]TJ
0 -1.5067 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0191 Tw
[(MacRobert, A. \(1985\) Backyard astronomy: Secrets of deep-sky observing Sky & T)80.6(elescope, 70\(3, Sep-)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.1278 Tw
(tember\), 204.)Tj
0 -1.52 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0126 Tw
[(MacRobert, A. M. \(1987\) Backyard Astronomy: The art of planetary observing - II. Sky & T)80.6(elescope)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0861 Tw
(74\(6, December\), 603.)Tj
0 -1.52 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0323 Tw
[(Nagler)40.5(, A. \(1991\) Choosing Y)107.2(our T)67.2(elescope)53.8(s Magnification Sky & T)80.5(elescope, May)67.2(, 553.)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0311 Tw
[(Polakis, T)80.8(.)0.1( \(1995\) Deep-sky on Four a Day [Is there life after observing the Messier objects? T)40.8(ry the Her-)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0254 Tw
[(schel 400 in 100 nights like I did from Arizona] Astronomy)66.8(, June, 65.)]TJ
0 -1.5067 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0478 Tw
[(Rabalais, M. \(1986\) How to Conquer the Messier Objects Astronomy)80.3(, December)40.3(, 88)]TJ
0 -1.52 TD
0.0258 Tw
(Spevak, J. \(1993\) Night of the Deep-Sky Observer [Follow a lone sky watcher through a night of viewing)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0611 Tw
[(springtime clusters, nebulae, and galaxies] Astronomy)80.3(, March, 62.)]TJ
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BT
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[(1.5 Observing techniques)]TJ
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(When you arrive at your observing site with)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(your equipment and a list of objects to observe,)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.015 Tw
[(you should ready the telescope for the night)60.6(s)]TJ
T*
0.0065 Tw
(work. Set up your telescope or binoculars us-)Tj
T*
0.0127 Tw
(ing your red torch; this will allow your eye to)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0507 Tw
(start adjusting to the dark. Both refractors and)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.025 Tw
(reflectors should be allowed to reach thermal)Tj
T*
0.0725 Tw
[(equilibrium with the surrounding air)48.7(, and re-)]TJ
T*
0.0159 Tw
[(flectors should be collimated properly)60.6(. T)72.6(ake)]TJ
T*
0.02 Tw
(the time to identify the constellations you will)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0186 Tw
(be observing in and look for useful asterisms)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0154 Tw
[(or star patterns to help you find your way)72.6(. Y)96.6(o)4.6(u)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0178 Tw
(are ready to start the search for your first ob-)Tj
T*
-0.0033 Tc
0 Tw
(ject.)Tj
0 -8.556 TD
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(One of the most basic, and valuable, observing)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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0.04 Tw
(skills is star-hopping, which is simply the fol-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0139 Tw
(lowing of a trail of stars from a place you)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0223 Tw
[(know \(eg. a bright star\) to a place you don)12.5(t)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0286 Tw
(know \(eg. the galaxy you are hunting for\).)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0207 Tw
[(Y)111(ou can plan your star-hop at the eyepiece,)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0256 Tw
(but it is recommended that you plan your first)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0371 Tw
(star-hop in advance, while you are drawing up)Tj
T*
0.02 Tw
[(your evening)48.6(s observing list.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0107 Tw
(Find the deep-sky object in question, say a)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0476 Tw
[(galaxy)60.6(, on the starchart. Search around it for a)]TJ
T*
0.0261 Tw
(bright star or asterism that you will be able to)Tj
T*
0.0155 Tw
(locate in the sky with ease. Now look for a trail)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0194 Tw
(of stars which will lead you from the star to)Tj
T*
0.0014 Tc
0.05 Tw
[(the galaxy)73.4(.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.001 Tc
0.049 Tw
(It is rather like playing connect-the-dots.)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.02 Tw
(Sometimes you might have to go a roundabout)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(way to get to your tar)24.5(get, or you may choose a)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(dif)12.3(ferent bright star to start from.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.03 Tw
(Bear in mind that once you have found the)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
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[(galaxy)60.2(, you can use it as the beginning of a)]TJ
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(star-hop to the next object.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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[(1.5.1 Star-hopping)]TJ
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10 0 0 10 372.53 455.15 Tm
0.002 Tc
0 Tw
(Clark)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
2.508 0 TD
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[( \(1990\) feels strongly about this basic)]TJ
-3.636 -1.2 TD
0.035 Tw
(technique, as do I: Star hopping should be)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0422 Tw
(learned by all amateur astronomers. It is the)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0343 Tw
(method of starting at a known naked-eye star)Tj
T*
0.0306 Tw
(and using a chart to move carefully from star)Tj
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0.001 Tc
0.0308 Tw
(to star until the desired object is reached.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
1.128 -1.764 TD
0.0016 Tc
0 Tw
(Garfinkle )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
4.476 0 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.05 Tw
(\(1995\) notes: Getting there is)Tj
-5.604 -1.2 TD
0.0324 Tw
[(half the fun, they say)60.6(. This is certainly true)]TJ
T*
0.0342 Tw
(when travelling between the stars in search of)Tj
T*
0.0492 Tw
(star clusters, nebulae, galaxies and such. Using)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0283 Tw
(a technique called star-hopping, you step your)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0144 Tw
(way across the heavens until you arrive at your)Tj
T*
0.0437 Tw
[(ultimate destination. Its easy)72.7(, its fun, and its a)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0343 Tw
(great way to learn the landscape of the night)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0292 Tw
[(sky)72.6(. Star hopping is like crossing a wide)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.033 Tw
[(stream on stepping stones. T)72.1(o)0.3( get from point A)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0235 Tw
(to point B, you step, or hop, from star to star)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
-0.0021 Tw
[(using a finder scope)60.6(s \(or eyepiece)48.6(s\) field of)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0155 Tw
[(view as a guide. Y)96.3(our hops often lead to a)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0157 Tw
(wonderful object while taking you past a mul-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0383 Tw
[(titude of interesting sights along the way)72.8(.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
1.128 -1.764 TD
0 Tw
[(MacRobert)-6.2( )]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
5.148 0 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0149 Tw
[(\(1988\) of)24.2(fers the following)]TJ
-6.276 -1.2 TD
0.0028 Tc
0.125 Tw
(star-hopping tips:)Tj
1.128 -1.764 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.039 Tw
(1. Double- and triple-check directions in)Tj
-1.128 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.015 Tw
(the eyepiece. Always think in terms of celestial)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0414 Tw
(north, south, east and west, never up, down,)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.035 Tw
(left or right. If you have an equatorial mount,)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0386 Tw
[(polar align it at least roughly)72.6(. Now the mounts)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.037 Tw
(motions follow the four cardinal directions.)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0193 Tw
[(T)47.1(urn the finder)-47.7()57.3(s)-0.1( eyepiece to make its cross-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0442 Tw
(hairs line up with these directions too.)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 67.97 455.63 Tm
0.0004 Tc
0.0342 Tw
(One tends to)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0363 Tw
[(discover)-37.4( a lot of)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0998 Tw
[(inter)38.8(esting things)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0685 Tw
(while star-hopping)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.23 Tm
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[(T)71(echniques)]TJ
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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[(the sky)60.2(. The magnitude-symbols used to show)]TJ
T*
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T*
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[(perceive stellar brightness, so don)12.7(t be caught)]TJ
T*
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(by brightness discrepancies when using a)Tj
T*
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(starchart.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[(3. Pay particular attention to star)-35()58(s)-0.5( posi-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(tions. Look for patterns of at least three stars)Tj
T*
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0.0464 Tw
(that fix the point youre after: little triangle,)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
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[(rectangles, kite shapes, and so forth. T)36.9(riangles)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(are the most basic units of star-hops. Pay close)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0717 Tw
(attention to their shapes.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.01 Tw
(4. Know your scale. Figure out how big)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0211 Tw
[(your finder)-23.5()45.5(s)0.1( field of view is on the chart, and)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0031 Tw
(also for the eyepieces you use to star-hop with.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0003 Tc
0 Tw
[(V)122.5(eteran )]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
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(Steve Coe )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0008 Tc
(described his technique)Tj
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(to the IAAC mailing list as follows:)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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(I have a method of star-hopping that I use)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
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[(for faint or dif)24.5(ficult to find objects. It involves)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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T*
0.0005 Tc
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(easily and confidently move to fairly exact lo-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0368 Tw
[(cation in the sky)72.6(. Those four things are: T)60.6(el-)]TJ
T*
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[(rad, University 1)36.2(1X80 finder with an Amici)]TJ
T*
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(prism, )Tj
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(Bright Star Atlas)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0005 Tc
[( and )]TJ
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(Uranometria)Tj
-11.832 -1.2 TD
0.0013 Tc
(2000)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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[( star atlas. I get the general idea of where)]TJ
-2.004 -1.2 TD
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[(I want to go in the sky with the T)72.7(elrad and)]TJ
/TT5 1 Tf
T*
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(Bright Star Atlas)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
6.864 0 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.041 Tw
(. Using these together I can)Tj
-6.864 -1.2 TD
0.0182 Tw
[(with certainty point the scope at a jump of)24.5(f)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0342 Tw
(star, generally naked eye, to star from. The)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
T*
0.0375 Tw
(Bright Star Atlas)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
6.864 0 TD
0.038 Tw
[( lets me answer the question)]TJ
-6.864 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
0.0081 Tw
(OK, which one of you guys is Sigma or)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0367 Tw
[(whatever)60.7(. Now that I am on the starting loca-)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.022 Tw
(tion I am ready to move up to a deeper magni-)Tj
T*
0.0065 Tc
0 Tw
(tude.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0459 Tw
(I turn to the page in )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0003 Tc
0 Tw
(Uranometria )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0016 Tc
0.05 Tw
(that has)Tj
-15.504 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.04 Tw
(the bright star on it, and hopefully it also has)Tj
T*
0.013 Tw
(the deep sky object I seek. Then I note an as-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0375 Tw
(terism that is directy north, south, east or west)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0172 Tw
(of the object I am looking to find. This works)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0106 Tw
(because I have a Bigfoot Mount, which is es-)Tj
T*
0.0521 Tw
(sentially a German Equatorial. Then once I am)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0262 Tw
(directly even with the object in a cardinal di-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0124 Tw
(rection, I move the scope to the oject, moving)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0289 Tw
(in only one direction at a time. I have found)Tj
20.292 54.432 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0407 Tw
[(two helpful things: the lar)12.4(ge finder shows all)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0579 Tw
(the stars marked on Uranometria and the Ami-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0295 Tw
(ci Prism will show the sky in the same orienta-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0617 Tw
(tion as the charts.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0145 Tw
(I used to spend a lot of time looking for a)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0236 Tw
[(faint object, not certain if I just wasn)12.8(t seeing)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0439 Tw
(it, or am I in the wrong location. This method)Tj
T*
0.0295 Tw
(allows me to be quite certain that I am at the)Tj
T*
0.03 Tw
(location marked on the chart. Now I can move)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(to the right spot and if the object isn)12.8(t there, it)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
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[(isn)12.1(t there and I can move on.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
1.14 -1.764 TD
-0.0007 Tc
0.025 Tw
(Lew Gramer)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0003 Tc
0.0265 Tw
[(, IAAC listowner)36.3(, wrote:)]TJ
-5.544 -1.776 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.0157 Tw
[(By the way)71.9(, it may be worth mentioning)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.051 Tw
(something else about star-hopping: the hop-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0116 Tw
(ping techniques you use probably will depend)Tj
T*
0.0257 Tw
(on your sky conditions! For instance, under ex-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0293 Tw
(tremely bright skies \(or with a smaller scope\),)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.043 Tw
[(I find that aiming the scope with a T)72.6(elrad)]TJ
T*
0.0575 Tw
(\(i.e., a gun-sight pointer\), then doing wide-)Tj
T*
-0.005 Tw
(field eyepiece sweeps usually picks up any star)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0456 Tw
(pattern Im trying to hop to, But under darker)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0617 Tw
[(skies \(and/or lar)25(ger apertures\), having a finder)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0191 Tw
[(as well as the T)60.6(elrad and Panoptic eyepiece)]TJ
T*
0.0067 Tw
(can be very handy!)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0217 Tw
(In the end, I guess I use a combination of)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0409 Tw
[(finder)36.7(, T)72.7(elrad, and eyepiece hopping tech-)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0222 Tw
(niques with my dobsonian - and a completely)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0333 Tw
[(dif)12.5(ferent set of techniques \(involving distinct)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.049 Tw
(north-south and east-west motions\) when Im)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0783 Tw
(using an equatorial mount!)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 67.97 616.55 Tm
-0.0001 Tc
0.0035 Tw
(One of the first)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0526 Tw
(accomplished star-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0 Tw
(hoppers)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
3.4484 0 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0158 Tw
(: Sir James)Tj
-3.4484 -1.2 TD
0.0079 Tw
(South claimed that)Tj
T*
-0.001 Tc
0.0158 Tw
[(W)46(illiam Herschel)]TJ
T*
-0.0003 Tc
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[(was able, from a)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
-0.014 Tw
(cold start, to find)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
-0.0263 Tw
(any object in the sky)Tj
T*
-0.0007 Tc
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(in under five min-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
-0.0141 Tw
(utes with the 20-foot)Tj
T*
-0.0046 Tc
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(telescope.)Tj
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
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[(T)71(echniques)]TJ
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[(T)71.1(o)0( plan your star hop, you will need to know)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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T*
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T*
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(Select your lowest-power eyepiece, which)Tj
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[(will have the widest field of view)60.6(. T)36.6(urn the tel-)]TJ
T*
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T*
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[(the field of view)72.6(. If your telescope has a drive,)]TJ
T*
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T*
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(The star will move towards the western)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(\(preceding\) edge of your field and new stars)Tj
T*
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(will appear at the eastern \(following\) edge.)Tj
T*
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(North and south lie at right angles to the west-)Tj
T*
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(east line, south being the direction you have to)Tj
T*
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(move the telescope to find the south pole.)Tj
T*
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[(Thus, directions in the sky have east and west)]TJ
T*
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(switched around; if north is to the top, then)Tj
T*
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(east will be to your left.)Tj
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(Using these cardinal directions is really)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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0.0336 Tw
(only useful to indicate angles which are multi-)Tj
T*
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(ples of 45.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[(T)71.6(o)0.2( specify directions more accurately)72.8(, the)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(position angle \(P)84(A\) is used. A P)96(A)0.7( of 0 is)]TJ
T*
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[(North and 90 is East. Northeast would be P)84.3(A)]TJ
T*
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[(= 45 while P)96.4(A)0( = 260 points a little south of)]TJ
T*
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0 Tw
(west.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.025 Tw
[(T)71.4(o)0( help you get to grips with position an-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0267 Tw
[(gles, you might like to try and estimate the P)96.4(A)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(for some easy double stars. The following short)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0281 Tw
(list names six \(out of many\) double stars that)Tj
T*
0.0475 Tw
(can be split with binoculars. The magnitudes)Tj
T*
0.0257 Tw
(of the two components are given, along with)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0434 Tw
[(their separation in arc seconds. The P)84.5(A)1.4( is)]TJ
/TT2 1 Tf
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-0.0004 Tc
0.0024 Tw
(1.5.2 Directions in the sky)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 361.13 728.99 Tm
0.0006 Tc
0.0313 Tw
[(measured from the brighter star)48.6(, so it tells you)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0261 Tw
[(where to look for the fainter star of each pair)48.5(.)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0148 Tw
[(Not only is it fun to estimate the P)96.3(A)1( of a dou-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0095 Tw
(ble in the sky and look it up to see how close)Tj
T*
0.0112 Tw
(you came, it is also good practice for keeping)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.07 Tw
(your directions straight.)Tj
1.14 -17.652 TD
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0.03 Tw
(Once you can identify north-south and east-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(west in the sky)60.7(, you will be able to read a star)]TJ
T*
0.0011 Tc
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T*
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1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0258 Tw
(Right ascension is measured west to east,)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(going from 0h to 12h to 23h and back again to)Tj
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(0h. Right ascension thus increases to the east)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0619 Tw
[(and declination increases to the north.)]TJ
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[(Star)-4643(Magnitudes)-2109.7(S)12.2(e)12.1(p)12.2( )]TJ
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[(PA)-86.2( )]TJ
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[(alpha Leo)-2306.6(1.4, )-56.6(7.6)-3826.6(1)-9.9(7)-9.9(7)-2573.2(3)-9.9(0)-9.9(7)]TJ
T*
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[(gamma Lep)-1560.6(3.6, )-80(6.2)-3827.3(9)-13.9(6)-3080.6(3)-10.6(5)-10.6(0)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.105 Tw
[(delta Ori)-2680.1(2.2, )15.4(6.8)-3826.8(5)-13.4(3)-3080.1(0)]TJ
T*
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[(sigma T)66.6(a)-2.9(u)-2133.4(4.7, )-40.5(5.1)-3826.8(4)-10.1(3)-10.1(0)-2573.4(1)-13.4(4)]TJ
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[(nu Sco)-3559.5(4.0, )-94.6(6.3)-3826.2(4)-12.8(1)-3079.5(3)-9.5(3)-9.5(7)]TJ
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[(T)71(echniques)]TJ
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BT
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-0.0001 Tc
0.0307 Tw
(The simplest method of measuring the field of)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0231 Tw
(view relies on the use of a star chart.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0337 Tw
[(Knowing north and east in the sky)72.3(, you can)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0405 Tw
(easily turn your star chart so that the image in)Tj
T*
0.0093 Tw
(the eyepiece corresponds to the chart. Look for)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.017 Tw
[(two stars that just fit in your field of view)60.3(, and)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0375 Tw
[(locate these stars on the star chart. Y)96.6(ou can)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0435 Tw
(now measure this distance on the map and)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0355 Tw
[(compare it with the scale on the mar)24.2(gin of the)]TJ
T*
0.03 Tw
(map to convert your linear measurement to de-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.045 Tw
(grees or arc minutes.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0337 Tw
(Remember that 1 degree \(\) = 60 arc min-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.001 Tc
0.015 Tw
(utes \(60)Tj
/F1 1 Tf
3.216 0 TD
0 Tc
0 Tw
()Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
0.24 0 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.02 Tw
(\) = 3600 arc seconds \(3600)Tj
/F1 1 Tf
10.98 0 TD
0 Tc
0 Tw
()Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
0.408 0 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.02 Tw
(\). Binocu-)Tj
-14.844 -1.2 TD
0.001 Tc
0.0328 Tw
[(lars typically have fields lar)25(ger than 4degrees ,)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0175 Tw
(and telescopes normally give a view smaller)Tj
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(than 2degrees.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0219 Tw
(It is essential to be able to judge angular)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
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[(distances in the sky)60.7(. The following table lists)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0675 Tw
(some angular estimates:)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0717 Tw
[(Solar / lunar diameter:)-7091.1()-25.2()]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0583 Tw
[(W)56.2(idth of index nail at arms length:)-1991.6(1)-11.7()]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0553 Tw
[(Orion)60(s Belt:)-11052(3)-12.1()]TJ
T*
-0.0003 Tc
0.05 Tw
[(Short arm of Crux:)-8568.3(4)-15.3()-15.3()]TJ
T*
-0.0006 Tc
0.0383 Tw
[(Long arm of Crux:)-8664.6(6)-12.7()]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0441 Tw
[(W)56.1(idth of clenched fist at arm)48.3(s length:)-683.7(1)-7.7(0)-7.8()]TJ
T*
-0.0007 Tc
0.0363 Tw
[(Long arm of Diamond Cross:)-4392.7(1)-8.7(0)-8.8()]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0525 Tw
[(Span of open hand at arms length:)-2316(2)-8(0)-8.1()]TJ
0 -2.964 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.005 Tw
(Everyday objects can also serve as angular)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0689 Tw
[(gauges. T)72.5(o)0( determine the apparent angular)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0379 Tw
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T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0163 Tw
(width by its distance from your eye, then mul-)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0263 Tw
(tiply by 57. For example, a 30cm ruler held)Tj
T*
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0.0111 Tw
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0.0359 Tw
(A more accurate method to determine the)Tj
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(your field along the east-west line.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0108 Tw
(This method is only useful for telescopes,)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0011 Tc
0.0254 Tw
[(since a star will take ages to cross the lar)25.1(ge)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.005 Tw
[(field of)12.4(fered by binoculars. Choose any bright)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0276 Tw
[(star)48.5(, preferably far from the south pole a star)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0114 Tw
[(in Orion)48.4(s belt would be a good choice.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0189 Tw
[(Centre the star in your field of view)72.5(, turn of)24.5(f)]TJ
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0.035 Tw
(the drive, and place the star just outside the)Tj
T*
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(eastern edge of the field. As the star drifts into)Tj
T*
0.0315 Tw
[(view)60.6(,)0( start your stop-watch. When the star dis-)]TJ
/TT2 1 Tf
12 0 0 12 158.21 775.55 Tm
0.0005 Tc
0.0006 Tw
[(1.5.3)-129.5( Measuring the field of view)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 361.13 708.95 Tm
0.0006 Tc
0.03 Tw
(appears at the western edge, stop the watch)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0328 Tw
(and note down the elapsed time. Repeat this)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0416 Tw
(measurement several times and take the aver-)Tj
T*
0.0061 Tc
0 Tw
(age.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0436 Tw
[(If this average time, T)72.2(,)0.1( is measured in min-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0264 Tw
(utes, then: field of view in arc minutes = 15 x)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0225 Tw
(T x cosine\( D \), where D is the declination of)Tj
T*
0.0375 Tw
(the star \(taken from a star catalogue, or esti-)Tj
T*
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(mated from a starmap\).)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.007 Tw
(For example, suppose you measure several)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0408 Tw
(transits of Canopus and calculate the average)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.04 Tw
(time to be 3.5 minutes. Canopus declination is)Tj
T*
0.0233 Tw
(roughly 52.7. The field of view is then 15 x)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.03 Tw
(3.5 x cos\(52.7\) = 15 x 3.5 x 0.6 = 31.5 arc)Tj
T*
0.0256 Tw
[(minutes. Thus the field of view is roughly half)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0175 Tw
(a degree across.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0045 Tw
(Make a note of the size of each eyepiece in)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
-0.0037 Tw
(your logbook, since a given eyepiece used on a)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
-0.0078 Tw
[(specific telescope has a fixed field of view)60.3(.)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
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[(T)71(echniques)]TJ
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[(1.5.4 Keeping observing notes: a logbook)]TJ
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-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(a logbook, is the emphatic opinion of Roger)Tj
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0.0207 Tw
(Clark. David Levy \(1989\) writes: If the hours)Tj
T*
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[(around to it. Y)108.7(et it)48.7(s easy and fun to do, and)]TJ
T*
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(our observations will mean so much more)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
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[(when theyre recorded accurately)73.1(.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0286 Tw
(The format of your log is not important;)Tj
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(the content is. So any system that works is)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(fine. Some observers prefer to draw in their)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(logs, while others would rather compute. Some)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
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[(keep a diary)72.4(. And some prefer the discipline of)]TJ
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(forms. Although forms make sure that you re-)Tj
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(member what to put down, I find them confin-)Tj
T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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(drawing, times for photographic exposures and)Tj
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(notes from other observers.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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(If you observe certain types of objects sys-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(tematically)72.5(, you might consider keeping sepa-)]TJ
T*
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(rate observing logs ... Why not take rough)Tj
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T*
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(files on your home computer?)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0385 Tw
(Clark points out that even the most casual)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(celestial sight-seeing becomes more meaning-)Tj
T*
0.018 Tw
(ful is a few notes are jotted down in a perma-)Tj
T*
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(nent record. Thorpe \(1988\) says that keeping)Tj
T*
0.0115 Tw
[(a notebook makes a more satisfied observer)60.5(. It)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0188 Tw
(will remind you of all the things youve seen,)Tj
20.292 43.692 TD
0.0125 Tw
(the way you felt while observing, and the frus-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.02 Tw
(tration and successes youve had with the hob-)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
0.0288 Tw
[(by)59.8(. And, most importantly)59.8(, it will prompt you)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0014 Tw
(to observe more carefully and to see more)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(when you observe.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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0.0036 Tw
(A notebook is your private record of the)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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0.0243 Tw
(universe. Although at first you may have to ad-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(just to updating it, the notebook will eventually)Tj
T*
0.0267 Tw
(contain unique records of your journey through)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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[(the universe. Astronomy of)12.4(fers great personal)]TJ
T*
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(satisfaction. It would be a shame if all those)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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[(wonderful memories of your involvement with)]TJ
T*
0.017 Tw
(astronomy simply faded away with time.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0475 Tw
(Clark laments the fact that he did not al-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0264 Tw
(ways keep good notes; reading through his rec-)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0371 Tw
(early attempts at note-taking: Back then I also)Tj
T*
0 Tc
0.0375 Tw
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T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0342 Tw
(wide, but rarely included field stars. Thus)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0177 Tw
(there is no way to tell the scale of a drawng or)Tj
T*
0.0211 Tw
(the size of what was seen. Is that fuzzy patch)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0387 Tw
(the full extent of a galaxy including the spiral)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.05 Tw
(arms, or only the bright central region?)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0004 Tc
0.0281 Tw
(The palest ink is)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
-0.0006 Tc
0.0507 Tw
[(clear)24.7(er than the)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0948 Tw
[(best memory)52.7(.)-1.9()]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
9 0 0 9 56.69 660.47 Tm
-0.0003 Tc
0.05 Tw
( Chinese proverb)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 158.21 173.99 Tm
0.0001 Tc
0.0354 Tw
[(Further r)12.1(eading:)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
0 -1.344 TD
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[(Eicher)36.5(, D. J. \(1989\) Don)24.5(t For)24.5(get the Bug Spray [Be prepared for anything under the stars)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.037 Tw
[(with these ten essential items. Don)24.3(t leave home without them!] Astronomy)60.3(, August, 67.)]TJ
0 -1.332 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0209 Tw
[(Levy)60.2(, D. H. \(1989\) Star T)36.2(rails, Sky & T)72.2(elescope, 77\(6, June\), 659.)]TJ
0 -1.344 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0283 Tw
[(Thorpe, A. M. \(1988\) Should Y)96.1(ou Keep an Astronomical Notebook? Astronomy)72.1(, January)60.1(, 50.)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0389 Tw
[(Zentz, G. L. \(1992\) A Personal and Permanent Journey through the Universe [T)36.3(ime spent be-)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0436 Tw
[(neath the stars with a journal will richly reward astronomical memories] Astronomy)72.5(, February)60.5(,)]TJ
T*
0.011 Tc
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(80.)Tj
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[(T)71(echniques)]TJ
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[(Sooner or later)48.6(, the novice deepsky observer)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.05 Tw
(comes across an apparently non-sensical string)Tj
T*
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[(of characters, like: vB. cL. mE. mbM. r)36(,)-0.2( used)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(to describe an object.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0008 Tc
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(These abbreviations were popularised by Sir)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0333 Tw
[(W)44.1(illiam Herschel, and first described by him)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0357 Tw
(in his paper Catalogue of One Thousand new)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.035 Tw
(Nebulae and Clusters of Stars published in)Tj
T*
0.031 Tw
(1786. He wrote: . . . and that I might describe)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
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(well be done, I have used single letters to ex-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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0.0108 Tw
(Over the years these abbreviations were re-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0119 Tw
(fined and added to; they were used by John)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
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(Herschel, and Dreyer used them when he pub-)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(lished the New General Catalogue or NGC.)Tj
T*
0.0375 Tw
[(Some years later)36.2(, a German astronomer pub-)]TJ
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(lished an enhanced list of abbreviations, repro-)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.02 Tw
(duced below in Appendix 5.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.012 Tw
(Modern observers, too, can benefit from)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.045 Tw
(such abbreviations. It makes note-taking at the)Tj
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0.0359 Tw
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0.0004 Tc
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[(and increasing accuracy)60.4(. In my case, my nor-)]TJ
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(mal handwriting approximates graphological)Tj
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(schizophrenia, and trying to decipher notes)Tj
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(from last week is agonising. Using a combina-)Tj
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(tion of abbreviations and normal text makes)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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T*
0.001 Tc
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(maintain that abbreviations restrict your think-)Tj
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0.0009 Tc
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(ing and that your descriptions then all turn out)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0383 Tw
[(more or less the same; this simply isn)12.3(t true, in)]TJ
T*
0.0393 Tw
[(the same way that taking dictation doesn)12.4(t re-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.006 Tw
[(duce the vocabulary of the speaker)48.5(.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
-0.0002 Tc
0.0133 Tw
(Some examples of my note-taking for open)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0034 Tc
0 Tw
(clusters:)Tj
9 0 0 9 169.49 280.43 Tm
0.0006 Tc
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(\(1\) Cl D = 1/6 K18. Cl is constrn by 3 * W &)Tj
-0.6267 -1.1067 TD
0.0333 Tw
(2 E)Tj
0.6267 -1.4267 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.0202 Tw
(\(2\) S: 2 9m * \(no col\) rough NS with neb. Co)Tj
-0.6267 -1.12 TD
0.0209 Tw
(Cl L&S *, F*s to W of 2 B *; best seen avv)Tj
0.6267 -1.4267 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0216 Tw
(\(3\) 1 * 9m on edge eRi glow vF-eF *s. Of)Tj
-0.6267 -1.1067 TD
0.0467 Tw
(these, the Ber * are in S groups iR scatt abt.)Tj
10 0 0 10 169.61 210.59 Tm
0.0007 Tc
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(The translation of these is quite straight-for-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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0 Tw
(ward:)Tj
9 0 0 9 169.49 182.27 Tm
0.0002 Tc
0.0452 Tw
(\(1\) Diameter of cluster is one-sixth of the)Tj
-0.6267 -1.1067 TD
0 Tc
0.0299 Tw
(field of view of the 18mm eyepiece. The cluster)Tj
0 -1.12 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0426 Tw
(is constrained by three stars to the west and two)Tj
0 -1.1067 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0695 Tw
(to the east.)Tj
0.6267 -1.4267 TD
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(\(2\) The first impression, in the sweeping eye-)Tj
-0.6267 -1.12 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0318 Tw
(piece [lowest power]: the cluster shows as two)Tj
0 -1.1067 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.0428 Tw
(9th magnitude stars \(of no distinct colour\), ar-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0389 Tw
(ranged roughly north-south, within a nebulous)Tj
0 -1.12 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0518 Tw
(haze. Closer examination shows a coarse cluster)Tj
0 -1.1067 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0507 Tw
[(of lar)13.5(ge and small [i.e. bright and faint] stars,)]TJ
T*
0.0451 Tw
(with the fainter stars to the west of the two)Tj
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[(The abbreviated version is 73% shorter)36.5(, and)]TJ
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[(Which brings us back to W)36.1(illiam again. He)]TJ
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[(gy can step in and of)12.4(fer a willing surrogate -)]TJ
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[(the dictaphone or portable tape recorder)48.6(. For)]TJ
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(obvious reasons, mine is christened Caroline.)Tj
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[(cording necessary)60.5(. A final note: Don)24.5(t for)12.5(get to)]TJ
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(developed; e-mail me for more details.)Tj
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[(1.6 The art of visual observing)]TJ
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(Acquiring such dextrous vision is one of)Tj
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[(1.6.1 The eye and dark adaptation)]TJ
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(Night vision is also impaired by alcohol,)Tj
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[(low oxygen and low blood sugar)48.4(. So don)24.4(t ob-)]TJ
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[(the varied scenes befor)38.1(e us in the eyepiece. All deep-sky objects deserve at least 15 minutes of)]TJ
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[(r)35.8(eading only the Cliff)-100.8()131.2(s)-0.2( Notes of the world)126.6(s)-1.3( gr)38.2(eat novels.)]TJ
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[( James Mullaney)]TJ
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(Keep observing.)Tj
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[(Y)89.4(ou will get better)]TJ
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[(mor)24.7(e as you do)]TJ
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[(mor)24.5(e observing.)]TJ
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( Eric Greene)Tj
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[(W)56.3(ith no light pollution, the limiting magni-)]TJ
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[(below)72.7(. The Milky W)72.7(ay is still easily visible but)]TJ
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[(At limiting magnitude 4.5, the Milky W)84.1(a)-4.1(y)]TJ
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(City dwellers typically face a limit of 3.5.)Tj
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[(The Milky W)84.4(ay is completely invisible, and)]TJ
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(Epsilon Crucis, the fifth brightest star of Crux,)Tj
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-1.14 -1.2 TD
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0.0257 Tw
[(from the bright sky that gets into your tele-)]TJ
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0.0004 Tc
0.025 Tw
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T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0148 Tw
[(dewcap made from stif)24.2(f blackened cardboard.)]TJ
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0.0005 Tc
0.0268 Tw
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0.0002 Tc
0.0624 Tw
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0.0003 Tc
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0.0044 Tw
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0.0008 Tc
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[(piece by pulling a black T-shirt over the eye-)]TJ
T*
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T*
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0.0249 Tw
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0.06 Tw
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1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0267 Tw
(Another basic strategy to combat light pol-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(more details, see the section on magnification)Tj
T*
-0.011 Tc
0 Tw
[(below)61(.)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
-0.0003 Tc
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(Art of observing)Tj
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0.0007 Tc
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(and still may leave the reader with the wrong)Tj
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(mental image. So when it comes to accurate)Tj
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[(recording of scientific data, there)48.6(s often no)]TJ
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(substitute for a picture.)Tj
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(In past centuries a scientist was necessarily)Tj
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(a draftsman. Nowadays scientists in almost all)Tj
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(fields rely on photography to record images,)Tj
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(and the pencil and sketchpad no longer rank as)Tj
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[(essential scientific tools. V)60.6(isual astronomy)60.6(,)]TJ
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[(however)36.6(, remains an exception. Michael)]TJ
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[(Sweetman of T)35.8(ucson, Arizona, wrote in As-)]TJ
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[(tronomy)60.3(s Letters column: Ive been drawing)]TJ
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(objects since I began observing, and I draw)Tj
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(every time I go to the telescope. I approach my)Tj
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0.07 Tw
(drawings as scientific illustrations. When)Tj
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(youre preparing for a drawing, proper eye-)Tj
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(piece and magnification selection are impor-)Tj
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[(tant . . . T)72.7(oo little power and the delineation of)]TJ
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[(details can)24.2(t be made out, too much power)36.2(, and)]TJ
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(contrast and form in extended objects like neb-)Tj
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(ulae are lost. A realistic drawing also requires)Tj
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(proper paper selection and drawing technique,)Tj
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(refined from hours of experience at the tele-)Tj
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(scope and practice away from the telescope. . .)Tj
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[(. As with most endeavours, skill and hard)]TJ
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(work produce quality results.)Tj
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(Equipment)Tj
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(If good observations are to be made, it is es-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(sential that the observer is comfortable and re-)Tj
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(laxed. An observing chair of some sort should)Tj
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(be used at the eyepiece. A clipboard is handy)Tj
20.292 69.396 TD
0.0005 Tc
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(for holding the rest of your drawing equip-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(ment, including your red observing light I)Tj
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(use a red mini-reading-lamp, with the bulb re-)Tj
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[(placed by two super-bright LED)60.6(s, to throw an)]TJ
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(even light over the sketching area.)Tj
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[( The drawing paper should be illuminated)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(by a dim red light, since a white light will de-)Tj
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[(stroy too much of the observer)-47.8()57.2(s)-0.1( night vision)]TJ
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(which is so essential for visual deep-sky ob-)Tj
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(serving. Macdonald \(1993\) suggests using an)Tj
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(A5-sized hardcover sketch book, the paper of)Tj
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[(which should be high-quality cartridge paper)48.7(. I)]TJ
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[(use 80g bond laser-printer paper)36.8(, cut in half)]TJ
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(into an A5 size. Before the page is divided, a)Tj
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(checklist and circle is laserprinted. The circle)Tj
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(on the sketch pad represents your field of view)Tj
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(in the eyepiece. Macdonald suggests a 50mm)Tj
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(diameter circle; Mitchell 75-100mm; I prefer)Tj
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(60mm.)Tj
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[( )7.7(Y)96.9(oull need a pen to plot stars. Mitchell)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(\(1995\) is of the opinion that a pencil works)Tj
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(better than a pen because a pen cannot convey)Tj
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(gradations of brightness. While a normal)Tj
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[(ball-point or fountain pen certainly won)24.8(t)]TJ
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(work, a fine-point felt-tip pen \(we call them)Tj
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(koki-pens\) is perfect. They make exquisitely)Tj
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(small dots with their tiny fibre tips. For bright-)Tj
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(er stars, slightly more pressure on the pen pro-)Tj
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[(duces a lar)25.1(ger blob. For really bright stars, ei-)]TJ
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(ther use a thicker tipped pen, or colour in a lit-)Tj
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(tle circle. Of course, bright stars remain point)Tj
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[(sources, so don)24.4(t draw them as lar)12.4(ge disks;)]TJ
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(rather as bloated spots.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[( A soft-leaded pencil or charcoal stick \(sold)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(at art supply shops\) and an eraser is also on)Tj
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(your shopping list. Only one type of pencil is)Tj
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[(used at the eyepiece, says Macdonald; dif)12.8(ferent)]TJ
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0.0005 Tc
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(grades of pencil may be used to enhance the)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
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(drawings indoors later on. He writes that the)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0316 Tw
(ideal sketching pencil is the Ebony pencil)Tj
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0.0007 Tc
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[(\(#6325\) made by Eberhard Faber)60.7(. It is coarse)]TJ
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(and soft enough to let you use just about any)Tj
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(sketching technique you want.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0155 Tw
[(Finally)72.6(,)0.2( youll need a smudge stick or cot-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0141 Tw
[(tonwool earbuds to smudge portions of the)]TJ
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(drawing. This creates the impression of hazi-)Tj
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(ness and testifies to the fact that there are few)Tj
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(straight edges and neat boundaries to deep-sky)Tj
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-0.0084 Tc
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(objects.)Tj
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(Drawing techniques)Tj
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[(Before you put pencil to paper)36.5(, study the object)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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0.0055 Tw
[(intently)60.4(. T)36.4(ry dif)12.4(ferent eyepieces to see the most)]TJ
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0.04 Tw
(detail; use various filters to enhance contrast.)Tj
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(Use averted vision to pick out the fainter de-)Tj
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(tail, letting the overall impression build up in)Tj
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(your mind. David Coleman \(1994\), comment-)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0005 Tc
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(As with most en-)Tj
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(deavours, skill and)Tj
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[(har)38.2(d work pr)38.2(oduce)]TJ
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[(quality r)38.7(esults ...)]TJ
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(Good drawings do)Tj
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[(not r)38.2(equir)38.2(e special)]TJ
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(artistic talent or ex-)Tj
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(perience, but they)Tj
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(do demand close)Tj
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(attention, much time)Tj
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(at the telescope,)Tj
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-0.0005 Tc
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[(much time r)24.8(edraw-)]TJ
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(ing . . . and honesty)Tj
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-0.0004 Tc
0.0343 Tw
[(in not r)37.5(ecor)24.9(ding de-)]TJ
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0.0003 Tc
0.1261 Tw
[(tails r)25.6(emember)50.8(ed)]TJ
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0.0005 Tc
0.126 Tw
[(fr)38.4(om photographs)]TJ
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(but not positively)Tj
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0 Tw
(seen.)Tj
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( Roger N Clark)Tj
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
-0.0003 Tc
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(Art of observing)Tj
ET
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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552.77 65.63 l
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BT
10 0 0 10 158.21 777.23 Tm
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(ing on sketching Mars, notes I began each)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(drawing session by not drawing the planet! It)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.028 Tw
(was important for me to spend a quiet 15 or 20)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.026 Tw
(minutes carefully observing. It takes practice)Tj
T*
0.0234 Tw
(and patience to train your eye to pick up faint)Tj
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0.0487 Tw
(detail, so try not to rush right into drawing.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0 Tc
0.0114 Tw
(Every time I sketch, Im impressed by how)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0275 Tw
(much detail I would have missed had I just)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0188 Tw
[(looked at the object for a short while and noted)]TJ
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0478 Tw
(a description. Fainter stars and subtle detail is)Tj
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0.0007 Tc
0.04 Tw
(revealed through extended observing. Studying)Tj
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0.042 Tw
(the object with intense concentration and)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
0.0275 Tw
(averted vision, says Mitchell, reveals more and)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.07 Tw
(more detail.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0283 Tw
(When you do start sketching, draw only)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
-0.0125 Tw
(what you see.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
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0 Tw
(The )Tj
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0.0325 Tw
(first step )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0008 Tc
0.0317 Tw
(in sketching is to plot the po-)Tj
-7.044 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0294 Tw
(sitions of the brightest stars in the field of)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
0.0279 Tw
[(view)60.4(.)-0.1( These stars serve as markers that keep)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0366 Tw
[(the drawing)61(s proportion correct. Start by plot-)]TJ
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0.0585 Tw
(ting a prominent star in accurate relation to)Tj
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0.0023 Tw
(the field of view circle. Now plot a second one)Tj
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[(at the appropriate distance, and angle. W)72.3(ork)]TJ
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0.0492 Tw
(from the outside, inwards. Examine the field,)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(and pay close attention to other stars that make)Tj
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0.0008 Tc
0.04 Tw
(distinctive triangles with the two already)Tj
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0.0386 Tw
(drawn. Select a star that makes a recognisable)Tj
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(shape, and add it in. Continue in this was by)Tj
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(making triangles, or extended lines, or even)Tj
0 -1.188 TD
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[(rectangles, with new stars. In this way)72.7(, a)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.042 Tw
(framework is erected within which fainter)Tj
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0.025 Tw
(stars may be filled in.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0441 Tw
(Drawing in the bright skeleton of stars)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
0.0242 Tw
[(should be done quickly)60(. Spend more time im-)]TJ
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0.0004 Tc
0.0769 Tw
(printing the image in the mind than staring at)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.04 Tw
(your sketchpad. While dividing attention be-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0125 Tw
(tween the eyepiece and sketchpad, preserve as)Tj
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0.0003 Tc
0.0179 Tw
(much night vision as possible by keeping your)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
0.0279 Tw
(red light subdued. Limit exposure to light by)Tj
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0.0002 Tc
0.0178 Tw
(spending most of your time studying the ob-)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.0285 Tw
(ject, and then draw bits of remembered detail)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0112 Tw
(in short bursts. Once youve selected a spot to)Tj
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0.0007 Tc
0.0406 Tw
[(position a star)36.7(, see if there are other triangles)]TJ
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0.04 Tw
(in which it is also involved, that can confirm)Tj
T*
0.065 Tw
(its position.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0308 Tw
(If your initial framework is not accurate,)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0285 Tw
(rather start again. If, as you get on, you plot a)Tj
T*
0.0269 Tw
(star in the wrong place, make sure you correct)Tj
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0.0009 Tc
0.0232 Tw
[(it. Because I use a pen to plot stars, it)60.9(s not a)]TJ
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0.0005 Tc
0.0421 Tw
(simple matter of erasing. Instead, I place the)Tj
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[(tip of the pen on the of)24.4(fending star)36.4(, and draw a)]TJ
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-0.0002 Tc
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(short \(<1mm\) tick away from it. When the)Tj
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0.0492 Tw
(drawing is retouched indoors, there stars are)Tj
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0.0002 Tc
0.0399 Tw
[(removed. A note in the mar)24.2(gin can also draw)]TJ
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0.001 Tc
0.045 Tw
(attention to any alterations as needed.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0666 Tw
(Continue plotting the fainter stars, in rela-)Tj
19.152 69.396 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0313 Tw
[(tion to the brighter ones, until youve added all)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0162 Tw
(the stars you can see.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0011 Tc
0.038 Tw
[(W)56.9(ith the stars in place, )]TJ
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0.04 Tw
(sketch the major)Tj
-10.74 -1.2 TD
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(details of the object)Tj
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0.0009 Tc
(, capturing the general)Tj
-8.46 -1.2 TD
0.001 Tc
0.0293 Tw
(shape. Mitchell says: This later serves as a)Tj
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0 Tc
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(template when it comes tome to fill in any sub-)Tj
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0.001 Tc
0.0293 Tw
[(tle detail in the object)61(s shape. I advise that)]TJ
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(you do this very lightly; often, as you continue)Tj
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0.026 Tw
(observing the object, this overall impression)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.013 Tw
(changes, especially on complex objects. This)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
0.0575 Tw
(again emphasises that prolonged observing)Tj
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0.0008 Tc
0.0442 Tw
[(shows detail not seen in the initial scrutiny)60.8(.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.035 Tw
[(W)56.4(ith the basics recorded, )]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
10.524 0 TD
0.0375 Tw
[(r)24.5(efine the sketch)]TJ
-11.664 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
(by adding details)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
7.356 0 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.04 Tw
(: the glittering of stars re-)Tj
-7.356 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0436 Tw
(solved in globulars, dark dust lanes in galax-)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.0185 Tw
(ies, and so on. Each type of object has a slight-)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
0.0347 Tw
[(ly dif)12.4(ferent approach.)]TJ
/TT5 1 Tf
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.03 Tw
(Open clusters )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
5.844 0 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0333 Tw
(are my favourite sketching)Tj
-6.984 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0357 Tw
[(tar)12.7(get. Accurate placement of stars is vital, as)]TJ
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0.0558 Tw
(is the faithful rendering of their brightnesses.)Tj
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0.0002 Tc
0.0257 Tw
(Slowly build up the image, working from the)Tj
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0.0007 Tc
0.0558 Tw
(outside inwards, using triangles and lines to)Tj
T*
0.0378 Tw
(position the stars. If there are an overwhelm-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0164 Tw
(ing number of stars, slightly defocus the eye-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0478 Tw
[(piece, which hides the fainter clutter)48.9(.)-0.2( Then re-)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0291 Tw
(focus to fill in the fainter members.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0085 Tw
[(Open clusters, by the way)72.4(, respond well to)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.066 Tw
(moonlight. While the brightened night sky)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
0.0083 Tw
(drowns out fainter deepsky objects, star clus-)Tj
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0.0185 Tw
[(ters can be seen reasonably well. T)72.6(ake advan-)]TJ
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0.0307 Tw
[(tage of a clear but moonlit light to prepare)]TJ
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0.0333 Tw
(sketches of open clusters. Fainter stellar mem-)Tj
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0.0387 Tw
(bers can be added in on a dark night.)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.04 Tw
(Globular clusters )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
7.368 0 TD
0.0425 Tw
(can be a real challenge,)Tj
-8.508 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0058 Tw
[(especially for lar)12.8(ger telescopes. Start by draw-)]TJ
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0.0007 Tc
0.0411 Tw
(ing the core dark, and the outer regions in suc-)Tj
T*
-0.0031 Tw
(cessively fainter layers of pencil say two or)Tj
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0.0336 Tw
(three separate layers. This should give a zoned)Tj
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0.001 Tc
0.045 Tw
(or tree-ring appearance to the sketch, but this)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
0.0442 Tw
(is eliminated by careful smudging, either with)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0333 Tw
(a smudge stick or an earbud. This creates a re-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0069 Tw
[(alistic nebulous ef)24.5(fect, if you make sure the)]TJ
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0.0006 Tc
0.0266 Tw
(edges fade naturally with on discernible edge.)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.0283 Tw
[(Be careful that you don)12.5(t inadvertently in-)]TJ
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0.0006 Tc
0.0093 Tw
(crease the size of the object with too much)Tj
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0.0717 Tw
(smudging; rather start out slightly smaller and)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0293 Tw
(build up the correct size with repeated pencil-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.11 Tw
(ling and smudging.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0341 Tw
(The shading should as accurately as possi-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0093 Tw
(ble reflect the brightness profile of the object;)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0335 Tw
(does it brighten suddenly or gradually; is the)Tj
T*
0.0867 Tw
(brightening slight or marked?)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0418 Tw
[(T)71.3(o)0.7( round of)24.5(f the drawing, add stars that are)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0186 Tw
[(involved in, or very close to, the cluster)48.8(. The)]TJ
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0.0003 Tc
0.025 Tw
(resolved stars should be added in from the)Tj
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0.0342 Tw
(cluster edge, working inwards. Of course, in)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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[(a faint, featur)38.9(eless)]TJ
T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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(hours.)Tj
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T*
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( Roger N Clark)Tj
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(Art of observing)Tj
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[(er reaches of the galaxy)72.8(, while an eraser is)]TJ
T*
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[(need a dif)24.4(ferent ap-)]TJ
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[(disks that don)24.4(t need smudging. Whether its)]TJ
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[(small and bright, or lar)24.5(ge and faint. first)]TJ
T*
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(sketch in the outline of the disk. Then fill in)Tj
T*
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T*
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T*
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(and their disks need to be slightly smudged.)Tj
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(Diffuse nebulae )Tj
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T*
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[(cil creates too strong an image. Macdonald)]TJ
T*
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(suggests you rub your forefinger or cotton bud)Tj
T*
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(with the pencil until it is coated with a fine)Tj
T*
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(layer of lead. I prefer to rub the pencil a)Tj
T*
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[(number of times on a scrap part of the paper)60.2(.)]TJ
T*
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(When it is well-coated with lead, I then load a)Tj
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(cotton bud by drawing it over this lead pal-)Tj
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(ette. Use this coated cotton bud to draw the)Tj
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T*
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[(enhanced by smudging with the finger)60.3(.)]TJ
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(Dark nebulae )Tj
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0.0005 Tc
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(same approach, although some of them have)Tj
T*
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(well-defined borders and are thus more like)Tj
T*
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0.0175 Tw
(planetary nebulae. Since some of these nebulae)Tj
T*
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0.025 Tw
[(are extremely lar)24.8(ge, a rich-field telescope, or)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.038 Tw
[(lar)12.2(ge binoculars, show them better)60.2(. Such a)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0166 Tw
[(wide field, however)36.3(, often includes a great)]TJ
T*
0.0517 Tw
(number of brighter stars, needing a longer)Tj
T*
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[(time to sketch accurately)72.9(. I prefer preparing)]TJ
T*
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(the star-field beforehand, by printing out on an)Tj
T*
0.0307 Tw
(A4 sheet an unlabelled starmap, down to say)Tj
T*
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(8th magnitude. At the eyepiece, the dark nebu-)Tj
T*
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(lae are then filled in on this framework; the)Tj
T*
0.0361 Tw
(idea, after all, is to sketch the nebula, not the)Tj
T*
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0.095 Tw
(background stars.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0 Tc
0.0325 Tw
(Finishing the drawing)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0075 Tw
[( As you study the field, notice at which edge of)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0187 Tw
(the eyepiece the stars appear to move out. Indi-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0227 Tw
(cate this position on your sketch - this is west.)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0205 Tw
[(East is on the opposite side, of course. T)60.4(o)-0.4( indi-)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0439 Tw
(cate north, turn the sketch so that east is point-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0329 Tw
(ing upward. If you are using a Newtonian,)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0478 Tw
(which has two mirrors, north is to the right. If)Tj
20.292 69.396 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0229 Tw
(you have a one-mirror system, like a refractor)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0481 Tw
[(with a star-diagonal, north is to the left. Don)24.8(t)]TJ
T*
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[(for)12.6(get to also record the date \(and time\), in-)]TJ
T*
0.0208 Tw
(strument and eyepieces used, and the observ-)Tj
T*
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(ing conditions which may influence the quality)Tj
T*
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(of the drawing. Also see the section on using)Tj
T*
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(an )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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(Observing Checklist )Tj
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(for details.)Tj
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[(Pr)24.7(eparing the final version)]TJ
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[(Y)98.7(our field sketches are not supposed to be fin-)]TJ
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(ished works of art, but rather rough drafts. For)Tj
T*
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T*
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(evenings sketching, return indoors to prepare a)Tj
T*
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(better rendition of your work, under normal)Tj
T*
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(lighting conditions. Combine the rough)Tj
T*
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T*
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(any corrections that you noted.)Tj
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(When you next observe, take your sketch)Tj
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0.0206 Tw
(out to the telescope for a moment of truth.)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(Compare it to the view in the eyepiece, looking)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0393 Tw
[(for and noting any inaccuracies. In this way)60.6(,)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
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(you can ensure maximum fidelity in your final)Tj
T*
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[(sketch. Y)96.5(our final sketch should readily show)]TJ
T*
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(the casual viewer what the skilled observer was)Tj
T*
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[(able to discern only with time and ef)24.6(fort at the)]TJ
T*
-0.0109 Tc
0 Tw
(eyepiece.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
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0 Tc
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[(Repr)12(oducing and displaying sketches)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
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(McDonald suggests redrawing your sketches if)Tj
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(they are to be displayed or sent to other observ-)Tj
T*
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(ers or observing sections. He redraws the)Tj
T*
0.0371 Tw
[(sketch, enlar)24.7(ging it by representing the field of)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
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(view with a 100mm circle. This time, he)Tj
T*
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0.0178 Tw
[(notes, dif)12.7(ferent grades of pencil are used to)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0474 Tw
[(highlight dif)24.5(ferent features. For example, a 4B)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.005 Tw
(\(very soft\) pencil is used for the cores of galax-)Tj
T*
0.0357 Tw
(ies or very bright planetary nebulae, and an)Tj
T*
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[(HB for faint nebulosity)72.4(. It should be remem-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(bered, however)36.5(, that the relevant positions and)]TJ
T*
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(brightnesses of the stars and nebulae must be)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
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(the same as in the original drawing. Other-)Tj
T*
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0.0206 Tw
[(wise, the drawing will lose its accuracy)60.7(. I)]TJ
T*
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[(much prefer to do the reproduction digitally)60.6(,)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(by scanning in the final drawing into a compu-)Tj
T*
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(ter graphics file. Open clusters can be scanned)Tj
T*
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0.0449 Tw
[(in and retouched with minimum ef)23.9(fort. Nebu-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(lous objects require a certain amount of knowl-)Tj
T*
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(edge of graphics editing software to deal with)Tj
T*
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[(properly)60.7(. This creates a permanent record with)]TJ
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(all the benefits of a digital document. If it is)Tj
T*
0.0233 Tw
[(necessary to make a hand-drawn copy)60.5(, photo-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0442 Tw
[(copy your original, perhaps enlar)12.8(ging it as)]TJ
T*
0.0127 Tw
[(necessary)72.8(. Nebulae, which almost always re-)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0105 Tw
[(produce badly)60.4(, can now be touched up as dis-)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(cussed above.)Tj
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0.0001 Tc
-0.0035 Tw
(Most of all, prac-)Tj
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[(tice. There)50.8(s no oth-)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
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(er way to master)Tj
T*
-0.0004 Tc
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(deep-sky observing.)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
-0.0019 Tw
[(And don)13.7(t quit on)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
-0.0228 Tw
(any object, no mat-)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0005 Tc
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(good, long, thor-)Tj
T*
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[(ough scrutiny)64(.)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
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(Art of observing)Tj
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(When choosing the best magnification for)Tj
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(than 20 arc minutes when the illumination is)Tj
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0.0319 Tw
(about as dim as the dark-sky background in a)Tj
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0 Tc
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[(fied suf)24(ficiently)60(.)]TJ
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(While a low-power eyepiece concentrates a)Tj
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(of a given area on the retina\), it does not en-)Tj
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[(lar)12.8(ge it suf)24.8(ficiently for clear resolution.)]TJ
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[(Unlike a star)48.6(, an extended source such as a)]TJ
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(surface brightness is proportional to the area of)Tj
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(Practice is the only sure-fire way to improve)Tj
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(up on an object, no matter how vague it may)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(look. Have another go. Consider this passage)Tj
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(from )Tj
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[(The Amateur Astr)24.2(onomer)-23.8()129.2(s)0( Handbook )]TJ
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(James Muirden:)Tj
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(No opportunity should be lost to train the)Tj
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(with valueless sketches and brief notes of fail-)Tj
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0.0114 Tw
[(1.6.7 Choice of magnification)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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(the exit pupil. Thus, an object viewed with an)Tj
T*
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0.0425 Tw
(exit pupil 1mm in diameter has only 2 percent)Tj
T*
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0.075 Tw
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(As magnification is increased, the sky back-)Tj
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0.0001 Tc
0.0481 Tw
(ground grows dimmer at the same rate that the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0257 Tw
(object does, so the contrast remains the same.)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.061 Tw
(But with higher magnifications, delicate struc-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0391 Tw
[(ture is lar)12.4(ger and hence more visible.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0479 Tw
(Faint stars are best seen at high magnifica-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0567 Tw
[(tion since the star)-35.4()45.6(s)0.2( image remains constant)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0439 Tw
[(while the background grows dimmer)36(, improv-)]TJ
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.1199 Tw
(ing contrast.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0341 Tw
(What all this means is that it is wise to try a)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
-0.0012 Tw
[(wide range of powers on any object. Y)96(ou may)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0069 Tw
(be surprised by how much more youll see with)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.095 Tw
[(one than another)48.7(.)]TJ
/TT2 1 Tf
12 0 0 12 158.21 372.95 Tm
-0.0008 Tc
0.0145 Tw
[(1.6.8 Practice makes perfect)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 366.77 294.47 Tm
0.0004 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
(ure. But this apparently empty labour is abso-)Tj
T*
-0.0032 Tw
[(lutely essential; for)38.3(, as the weeks pass, a steady)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0053 Tw
(change will be taking place. Objects consid-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0125 Tw
[(ered dif)12.7(ficult or impossible to see will now be)]TJ
T*
-0.0002 Tc
-0.0026 Tw
(discerned at first glance, and fainter specters)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
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(will have taken their place. Indeed, these)Tj
T*
0 Tc
-0.0218 Tw
(former features will now be so glaringly obvi-)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
-0.0053 Tw
(ous that the observer may suppose that some)Tj
T*
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[(ject here will cause it to vanish altogether)49(.)]TJ
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(Astronomy and vision)Tj
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(High magnification demands a lot from)Tj
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0.038 Tw
(So while higher magnification does de-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0213 Tw
(crease surface brightness, MacRobert notes,)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0375 Tw
(the total number of photos of light entering the)Tj
20.292 69.468 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0321 Tw
[(eye remains the same. It doesn)24.6(t really matter)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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0.0294 Tw
(that these photons are spread out over a wider)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.046 Tw
(area; the retinal image-processing system will)Tj
T*
0.0507 Tw
(cope with them. At least within certain limits.)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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[(A trade-of)12(f is needed to reach the optimum)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.035 Tw
(power for low-light perception: enough angu-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
(lar size but not too drastic a reduction in sur-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(face brightness.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[(Mel Bartels on his V)60.5(isual Astronomy)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(page concludes that there are a number of)Tj
T*
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(ways to make an object detectable. Regarding)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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[(magnification, he says: Use suf)12.2(ficient magni-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0375 Tw
(fication to make the background invisible and)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0228 Tw
(the object about one degree in apparent size.)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
(Most amateurs today use too low of power be-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(cause their scopes don)12.6(t track, and because)]TJ
T*
0.0082 Tw
[(that)48.6(s what everyone else does. John Dobson)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0278 Tw
[(was the first lar)12.8(ge aperture observer to point)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(out the advantages of high magnifications. Al)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0532 Tw
[(Nagler)36.1(, and Brian Skif)24.1(f, among others, have)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
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(recommended high magnifications. By in-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.035 Tw
(creasing magnification, you are decreasing sky)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.052 Tw
(background brightness, and making the object)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0443 Tw
[(lar)12.9(ger in apparent size, both crucial to detecta-)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0003 Tw
[(bility)72.4(. For small extended objects, you may ex-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0069 Tw
(ceed the old double star observers rule of 50x)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.05 Tw
(per inch of aperture.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0344 Tw
[(Nils Olof Carlin summarises: T)72.2(o detect a)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0316 Tw
[(faint object, you can increase magnification till)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0066 Tw
[(the sky is so dark that you have dif)24.7(ficulty see-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.03 Tw
(ing the field stop, or till the object has an ap-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0159 Tw
(parent size of 1 degree, whichever comes)Tj
T*
0.0079 Tc
0 Tw
(first.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.04 Tw
(The retina has very poor resolution in dim)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0189 Tw
(light \(which is why you can see a newspaper at)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(night but not read it\). Details in a very faint)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(object can be seen only if they are magnified)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0082 Tw
[(suf)24.1(ficiently)60.1(. T)60.1(o)0.1( get the most out of observing,)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(use dif)12.3(ferent magnifications, including very)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(high, and take time to closely examine the ob-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(ject. And don)24.3(t for)12.3(get to make a sketch.)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
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(Astronomy and vision)Tj
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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/TT2 1 Tf
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[(1.7.5 The role of contrast)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0365 Tw
(Lee Cain \(1986\) writes that the most impor-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(tant factor in observing deep-sky objects is)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(contrast. The eye is capable of seeing extreme-)Tj
T*
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[(ly faint objects as long as there is suf)12.5(ficient)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(contrast with the background. Cleanliness)Tj
T*
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(influences contrast. Dirty optical surfaces are)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0264 Tw
(perhaps the biggest enemy of contrast in tele-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0185 Tw
[(scopes. Dirt near the telescope)60.8(s focal plane is)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(most detrimental, because here the light is)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(concentrated and light-scattering dust is more)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(nearly in focus to the eye. Eyepieces, diago-)Tj
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(nals, and secondary mirrors should be kept as)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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[(clean as possible.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[(The inside of a telescope should be black-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(ened and well baf)24.2(fled to kep stray light form)]TJ
T*
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(entering the eyepiece. But the amount of stray)Tj
T*
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[(light in even a poorly baf)24.8(fled telescope is less)]TJ
T*
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(than what enters the eye from around the out-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(side of the eyepiece. ... I suggest using a rubber)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0144 Tw
(eyecup or draping a black cloth over your head)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
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(while observing.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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[(1.7.6 Deliberate image motion)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0284 Tw
(Since the low-level light receptors, rods, are)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0007 Tc
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(lightly tap the telescope tube, causing the im-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(age to move about. In this way they notice de-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(tail in an object that they otherwise wouldn)24.8(t)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
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[(pick up. How much to rock? W)35.9(ith a 40arcmin)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
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[(field of view)60(, I use up to 10 arcmin swings)]TJ
/TT2 1 Tf
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(1.7.7 Observing at the limit)Tj
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(Schaefer \(1989\) notes: Only three parameters)Tj
T*
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[(have a big ef)12.1(fect on the limitng magnitude: ap-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(erture, magnification, and the naked-eye limit-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0427 Tw
[(ing magnitude at zenith. A telescope of lar)24.7(ger)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.02 Tw
(aperture obviously collects more light. Higher)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.045 Tw
(magnification spreads the background sky)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
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[(brightness over a lar)25.1(ger angle, so a telescopic)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0136 Tw
[(viewer sees a fainter skyglow and hence can)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(pick out fainter stars. The zenith magnitude is)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0307 Tw
(an indicator of sky brightness: the fainter you)Tj
T*
0.0158 Tw
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T*
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(can see with it.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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0.045 Tw
(An important concept is the probabilistic)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
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(nature of observing at the limit. Schaefer com-)Tj
T*
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(ments that the actual limit depends on the ob-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
-0.013 Tw
[(server)-35.3()57.7(s)0( confidence. If youre absolutely sure)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0306 Tw
(that a star of magnitude 14.0 is always visible,)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(you may still get occasional definite glimpses)Tj
T*
0.0317 Tw
[(of a 15.0 star)48.7(. Faint-star visibility is a probabil-)]TJ
T*
0.0524 Tw
[(istic af)24.7(fair)48.7(. Clark \(1994\) expands on this:)]TJ
T*
0.025 Tw
(Observers looking at extremely faint stars)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0281 Tw
(note that the star will blink into view occas-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(sionally; it is only seen for brief moments. By)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0633 Tw
(increasing the integration time - the time)Tj
20.292 28.164 TD
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(spent trying to make a detection - a few blinks)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(detected at the same location can build up to)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
(the positive identification of stars or faint ob-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0234 Tw
(jects normally considered beyond reach ... The)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0128 Tw
(longer you look, the fainter you should see.)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(Laboratory research on the eye)60.8(s response to)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0414 Tw
(faint light shows that detection limits can be)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.025 Tw
(likened to a probability curve ... there is no)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(single limiting magnitude for a given telescope)Tj
T*
0.0096 Tc
0 Tw
(aperture.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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(The best observers achieve results at the 2)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(percent level, yet they are actually detecting)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(the tar)12.6(get star perhaps only 1 percent of the)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0349 Tw
[(time. The reason is simple: its dif)24.5(ficult to hold)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(your eye steady enough to allow the most sen-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0179 Tw
(sitive part of your retina to collect photons)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(from a tiny part of the total image. This while)Tj
T*
0.02 Tw
(you might spend 100 seconds trying to detect a)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0319 Tw
[(faint star)36.8(, it is challenging to hold your eye)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0125 Tw
(steady in the correct position for even 50 sec-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0232 Tw
[(onds. Even the best observers can)24.8(t do it all the)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0416 Tw
(time, and they have practiced the technique)Tj
T*
0.0975 Tw
(long and hard.)Tj
0 44.304 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.045 Tw
(\(amplitude\). In my experience, the image)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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0.015 Tw
[(should not move too rapidly)60.3(, or it simply be-)]TJ
T*
0.0174 Tw
[(comes a blur you don)24.4(t want to generate)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0192 Tw
(your own seeing! Also, this techniques seems)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0115 Tw
[(more ef)12.2(fective when used with a telescope than)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.055 Tw
(when applied with binoculars.)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
-30.444 -2.04 TD
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(Factors that affect)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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(visual acuity: age,)Tj
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0.0003 Tc
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(smoking, alcohol, al-)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.115 Tw
(titude, blood-sugar)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
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[(level, diet, and pr)36.9(e-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(exposur)36.6(e to bright)]TJ
T*
0.0084 Tc
0 Tw
(sunlight.)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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(Astronomy and vision)Tj
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(Some 5 to 10 minutes are needed to detect)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(faint objects at the 5% probability level. T)72.8(o)]TJ
T*
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[(time. Y)96(ou also need to be far away from city)]TJ
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(lights and have keen averted vision and in-)Tj
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T*
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(achieve the faintest possible observation. High)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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[(on my list is total isolation from extraneous)]TJ
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(light. Cover your head with a black cloth if)Tj
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0.02 Tw
(aid is to tap the telescope tube lightly when)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0432 Tw
[(trying to confirm a sighting of a faint star)48.5(,)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0057 Tw
(since our eyes are very sensitive to motion.)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(Some observers breathe more deeply or fre-)Tj
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(quently than normal, in the hope that doing so)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
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[(will deliver more oxygen to the eye)48.6(s recep-)]TJ
T*
0.0076 Tc
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(tors.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
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(But there is more to observing than simply)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.049 Tw
(detecting faint stars. The probabilty principles)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0171 Tw
[(can apply to contrast in extended objects. Y)96.6(o)4.6(u)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0228 Tw
(may detect a low-contrast feature on a planet)Tj
T*
0.0144 Tw
(by simply observing it long enough for it to)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.013 Tw
[(flash into view)72.7(. Planetary observers usually)]TJ
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0.0267 Tw
(credit seeing changes as being responsible for)Tj
T*
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(all fine, low-contrast detail they see. Some of)Tj
T*
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(the eye and brain combination hitting those)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.025 Tw
(low probability levels! ... Again, to reach the)Tj
T*
0.0079 Tw
(lowest levels, you must have excellent skies ...)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0127 Tw
[(Y)98.4(ou must be far from cities and work on very)]TJ
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(clear nights.)Tj
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(1.7.8 Colour vision)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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[(Clark \(1990\) writes that the human eye is a)]TJ
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(remarkable detector of colour under bright)Tj
T*
0.028 Tw
[(daytime conditions. But the colour receptors,)]TJ
T*
0.0294 Tw
(the cones, do not function at all in the low)Tj
T*
0.0257 Tw
(light levels of night, so no colour is seen.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0517 Tw
(Shaefer \(1993\) points out that the human)Tj
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(vision, which uses rods\) has three types of)Tj
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0.0004 Tc
0.0469 Tw
[(photopigments, each with a dif)12.4(ferent spectral)]TJ
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0.0007 Tc
0.0087 Tw
[(sensitivity)72.7(. So the eye simultaneously measures)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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[(the brightnesses of an image over three dif)12.3(fer-)]TJ
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0 Tc
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(ent wavebands, much like taking CCD images)Tj
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[(through three dif)12.6(ferent filters or taking a col-)]TJ
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0.0004 Tc
0.0539 Tw
[(our photograph with three dif)12.4(ferent chemical)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0258 Tw
(dyes. The situation is also analogous to pho-)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.0191 Tw
(tometry in the Johnson UBV system, where)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0717 Tw
(three intensities are measured.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
-0.0028 Tw
[(T)71.3(o)-0.1( detect colour in deep-sky objects, do not)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0075 Tw
(use averted vision look directly at the object.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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(1.7.9 Are two eyes better than one?)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0275 Tw
(Bowen \(1985\) reports: When low-contrast)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
0.0271 Tw
[(tar)12.5(gets are viewed, there is a 40% improve-)]TJ
T*
0.0475 Tw
(ment in resolution with binocular as compared)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(to monocular vision. Binocular vision also)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.043 Tw
(gives an improvement in contrast sensitivity)Tj
T*
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(on the order of 40%. Also, there is a lower)Tj
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0.0696 Tw
[(gr)24.9(eatly influences)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
-0.0012 Tw
(our view of the uni-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0374 Tw
[(verse. W)48.3(eather con-)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0117 Tw
(ditions, too, play an)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0133 Tw
[(important r)25.1(ole in the)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(quality of observing.)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.005 Tw
(Not to forget the)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
-0.0005 Tw
[(gr)24.5(owing pr)24.5(oblem of)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
(light pollution. Some)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
-0.0084 Tw
(of these complex top-)Tj
T*
0.0013 Tc
0.0251 Tw
[(ics ar)25.3(e discussed)]TJ
T*
0.0117 Tc
0 Tw
[(her)23.7(e.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
10.152 7.5 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0216 Tw
[(Under a clear sky)72.7(, writes Schaefer \(1993\),)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0433 Tw
(the twinkling of stars creates an atmosphere)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.013 Tw
(of liveliness. MacRobert \(1995\) says that)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0112 Tw
(viewed at high power from the bottom of our)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0405 Tw
[(ocean of air)36.4(, a star is a living thing. It jumps,)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0306 Tw
[(quivers, and ripples tirelessly)73(, or swells into a)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.02 Tw
(ball of steady fuzz. Schaefer continues: This)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0628 Tw
[(rapid change in a star)-35.2()57.8(s)0.1( apparent brightness is)]TJ
T*
-0.0004 Tc
0 Tw
(termed )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
3.084 0 TD
0.0018 Tc
(scintillation)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
4.8 0 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.06 Tw
[(. Even though stars sub-)]TJ
-7.884 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0567 Tw
(tend infinitesimal solid angles, they appear in)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0125 Tw
(a telescope as a finite disk with fuzzy edges.)Tj
T*
0.055 Tw
(This image blurring is called )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
12.036 0 TD
0.0003 Tc
0 Tw
(seeing)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
2.568 0 TD
-0.0018 Tc
0.0575 Tw
(. When a)Tj
-14.604 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.03 Tw
(star is viewed through a small telescope, the)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0314 Tw
(light appears to move around like a will-o-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0327 Tw
[(the-wisp dancing around a fairy)60.7(. This ef)24.7(fect is)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0 Tw
(called )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
2.712 0 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.07 Tw
(image movement)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
6.828 0 TD
0.0022 Tc
0 Tw
(.)Tj
-8.4 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.032 Tw
(All three phenomena are closely related)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.042 Tw
(manifestations of turbulence in the atmos-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0185 Tw
[(phere. The correct idea was first advanced by)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.015 Tw
(Robert Hooke in 1665 when he suggested the)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0192 Tw
(existence of small, moving regions of atmos-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.048 Tw
[(phere having dif)24.5(ferent refracting powers which)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0313 Tw
(act like lenses. The refractive index of the air)Tj
T*
0.0359 Tw
(varies slightly from point-to-point due to small)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0317 Tw
(changes in temperature and density caused by)Tj
T*
0.05 Tw
(turbulent motions of the winds and heating)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
0.029 Tw
[(from the ground. So the path of a beam of light)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0449 Tw
[(passing through the atmosphere will be bent)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0608 Tw
(and kinked from the random scatterings im-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.015 Tw
[(posed by the weak refractive prisms of air)60.4(. An)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0167 Tw
(observer on the ground will be able to see light)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0206 Tw
(from a point source by looking in many direc-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0428 Tw
(tions at once. This spreading of the light into a)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0222 Tw
(seeing disk is caused by many small angle)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.061 Tw
(scatterings, and hence has a two-dimensional)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0392 Tw
(Gaussian distribution. As the wind blows the)Tj
T*
0.0368 Tw
(eddies across the line of sight, the number and)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.045 Tw
(centroid of paths will shift randomly resulting)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0775 Tw
(in scintillation and image movement.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0291 Tw
(The best introductory article on this topic)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
[(is Y)96.5(oung \(1971\) while Mikesell, Hoag and)]TJ
T*
0.0136 Tw
(Hall \(1951\) provide a good discussion of the)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.038 Tw
(observational properties of scintillation. A re-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.015 Tw
(view paper by Coulman \(1985\) gives a detailed)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.045 Tw
(technical discussion along with an extensive)Tj
T*
0.0023 Tc
0 Tw
[(bibliography)62.3(.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0 Tc
0.0175 Tw
[( Slow and fast seeing)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0099 Tw
[(MacRobert \(1995\) notes that T)72.8(elescope users)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0009 Tw
(recognize two types of seeing: slow and)Tj
20.292 59.856 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.035 Tw
(fast. Slow seeing makes stars and planets)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0292 Tw
(wiggle and wobble; fast seeing turns them into)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.025 Tw
[(hazy balls that hardly move. Y)96.2(ou can look)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0407 Tw
(right through slow seeing to see sharp details)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0075 Tw
(as they dance around, because the eye does a)Tj
T*
0 Tc
-0.0091 Tw
(wonderful job of following a moving object.)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0059 Tw
[(But fast seeing outraces the eye)48.7(s response)]TJ
T*
0.0098 Tc
0 Tw
(time.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0.0063 Tc
[(T)73.3(winkling)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0131 Tw
(An old piece of amateur folklore is that you)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0138 Tw
(can judge the seeing with the naked eye by)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0433 Tw
(checking how much stars twinkle. This often)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0093 Tw
(really does work. Most of the turbulence re-)Tj
T*
0.047 Tw
(sponsible for twinkling originates fairly near)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0314 Tw
(the ground, as does much poor seeing. But)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0358 Tw
(high-altitude fast seeing escapes this test. If)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0386 Tw
[(the star is scintillating faster than your eye)61(s)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0293 Tw
(time resolution \(about 0.1 second\), it will ap-)Tj
T*
0.0075 Tw
(pear to shine steadily even if a telescope shows)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.035 Tw
(it as a hazy fuzzball.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0.0035 Tc
0 Tw
[(T)70.5(ranspar)15.5(ency)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0267 Tw
[(T)35.7(ransparency describes the clarity of the at-)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0479 Tw
[(mosphere. As the transparency worsens, faint)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0274 Tw
[(stars begin to disappear)60.8(. Extended objects such)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.025 Tw
[(as nebulae suf)24.3(fer most from poor transparency)72.3(,)]TJ
T*
0.0508 Tw
(lunar and planetary detail from poor seeing,)Tj
T*
0.0091 Tw
[(star clusters equally from both ef)12.3(fects.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.011 Tw
[(How to identify sour)12.1(ces of seeing)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
0 -1.776 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0224 Tw
[(MacRobert \(1995\) T)36.2(ube currents of warm and)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0243 Tw
(cool air in a telescope are real performace kill-)Tj
T*
0.0199 Tw
[(ers. Reflectors are notorious for their tube cur-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0266 Tw
(rents. Any open-ended tube should be ventilat-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0169 Tw
(ed as well as possible. Suspending a fan be-)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0328 Tw
[(hind a relfector)-35.8()45.2(s)0.1( mirror has bgecome a pop-)]TJ
T*
0.0106 Tw
(ualr way to speed cooling and blow out mixed-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0256 Tw
[(temperature air)60.9(. It)60.9(s easy to check whether tube)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0492 Tw
[(currents trouble your images. T)36.7(urn a bright)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0266 Tw
(star far out of focus until its a big, uniform)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0361 Tw
[(disk of light. T)36.6(ube currents will show as thin)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0271 Tw
[(lines of light and shadow slowly looping and)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0567 Tw
(curling across the disk.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0335 Tw
(On the other hand, if the out-of-focus star)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0308 Tw
(disk swarms with wrinkles that scoot across)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0356 Tw
[(the view)60.8(, entering one edge and leaving the)]TJ
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.0411 Tw
[(other)49.1(, then there is local seeing near the tele-)]TJ
T*
-0.0062 Tc
0 Tw
(scope.)Tj
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
-0.0001 Tc
0.0944 Tw
(The atmosphere)Tj
ET
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BT
/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 462.65 54.35 Tm
0 0 0 rg
/GS2 gs
-0.004 Tc
0 Tw
(30)Tj
-39.456 0 TD
0.0002 Tc
(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
ET
0 0 0 RG
0 J 0 j 0.24 w 10 M []0 d
/GS1 gs
1 i
56.69 65.63 m
552.77 65.63 l
S
BT
10 0 0 10 158.21 777.23 Tm
/GS2 gs
0.0007 Tc
0.0133 Tw
[(T)71.5(o)0( combat local seeing:)]TJ
9.5 0 0 9.5 169.49 759.95 Tm
0.0001 Tc
-0.0381 Tw
( allow telescope cool-down before observing)Tj
0 -1.5032 TD
0 Tc
-0.0048 Tw
( avoid tube currents flows of warm and)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
-0.0148 Tw
(cool air in a telescope tube)Tj
0.5937 -1.5032 TD
0.0006 Tc
-0.0106 Tw
( keep body heat and breath out of the light)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0072 Tc
0 Tw
(path)Tj
0.5937 -1.4905 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.005 Tw
( telescope surroundings should be thermal-)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
-0.0106 Tw
(ly friendly grass is better than pavements;)Tj
T*
-0.0003 Tc
-0.0226 Tw
(the flatter and more uniform the greenery the)Tj
T*
0 Tc
-0.0195 Tw
[(better; the higher of)12.6(f the ground, the better)50.5(.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 158.21 631.31 Tm
0.0004 Tc
0.065 Tw
[(W)52.4(eather indicators)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0.0071 Tw
(The following bits of advice were gleaned from)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0287 Tw
[(various authors; I really don)24.8(t have a good un-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0425 Tw
(derstanding of the weather and its role in as-)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(tronomy any help would be welcome.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.0147 Tw
[(1. )5(W)83.9(atch the colour of the daytime sky)59.9(, es-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0371 Tw
[(pecially near the horizon. The bluer the sky)72.8(,)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0364 Tw
(the darker the night will probably be. The)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0118 Tw
(white haze in a blue sky consists of microscop-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0286 Tw
(ic water droplets that have condensed on tiny)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.053 Tw
(solid particles, primarily sulphate dust from)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.05 Tw
(distant factories and power plants. These parti-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0244 Tw
[(cles are the precursors of acid rain. They do)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
(just as good a job of scattering artificial light)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0312 Tw
(at night. A deep blue sky in the afternoon)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.055 Tw
(should mean a transparent sky after dark.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.015 Tw
(2. If low humidity is predicted by the weath-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0585 Tw
[(erman, that)60.3(s a good sign.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0271 Tw
(3. A windy cold front sweeping through a)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0322 Tw
(city can clear out local air pollution, leaving)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0408 Tw
(the night marvelously dark. The windiest city)Tj
T*
0.0486 Tw
(and suburban nights are often the darkest. A)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0507 Tw
(passing rainstorm or blizzard can also leave an)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.055 Tw
(unusually dark night in its wake.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0078 Tw
(4. Poor seeing does seem more likely shortly)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0356 Tw
[(before or after a change in the weather)48.7(, in par-)]TJ
T*
0.0533 Tw
(tial cloudiness, in wind, and in unseasonable)Tj
T*
0.06 Tw
(cold. Any weather pattern that brings shearing)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0143 Tw
(air masses into your sky is bad news.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0195 Tw
(5. After a cold front passes - often with a)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0131 Tw
(heavy rain or snowstorm - the sky usually be-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0221 Tw
(comes very dark and crystal clear but, unfortu-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.046 Tw
[(nately)60.9(, very turbulent. These clear nights,)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0358 Tw
(when stars twinkle vigorously and the temper-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.01 Tw
(ature plummets, may be great for deep-sky ob-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.03 Tw
(serving but are usually worthless for the plan-)Tj
T*
0.0024 Tc
0 Tw
(ets.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0425 Tw
(There is a separate resource for determining)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0467 Tw
(the naked-eye limiting magnitude contact me)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.027 Tw
(if you would like this information.)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
21.432 65.352 TD
0.0005 Tc
0 Tw
( Impact of light pollution)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
-1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0067 Tw
(A typical suburban sky today is about 5 to 10)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0743 Tw
(times brighter at the zenith than the natural)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0199 Tw
[(sky)60.7(. In city centers the zenith may be 25 or 50)]TJ
T*
0.083 Tw
(times brighter than the natural background.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0576 Tw
[(Where there)60.7(s no light pollution the limit-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0335 Tw
(ing magnitude is usually assumed to be 6.5,)Tj
T*
0 Tc
0.0292 Tw
[(though some people can see fainter)48(. Under)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0322 Tw
(such conditions, the sky is packed with stars,)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0187 Tw
[(the Milky W)84.1(ay is a mass of swirling, jumbled)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0429 Tw
(detail and any clouds appear blacker than the)Tj
T*
0 Tc
0.0386 Tw
(sky itself. At a limiting magnitude of 5.5,)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0228 Tw
(clouds are brighter than the sky because they)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0165 Tw
[(are lit from below)72.5(. The Milky W)72.5(ay is still easi-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0264 Tw
(ly visible but far less detailed. At limiting)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0206 Tw
[(magnitude 4.5, the Milky W)72.3(ay is barely detect-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0294 Tw
(able as a faint, nearly featureless band. At a)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0136 Tw
[(limit of 3.5 the Milky W)84.2(ay is completely invis-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0 Tw
(ible.)Tj
1.14 -1.776 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0186 Tw
[(David W)96.1(.)-0.3( Knisely recently posted an item to)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0417 Tw
(sci.astro.amateur \(Subject: Measuring sky)Tj
T*
0.0608 Tw
(darkness, Date: Thu, 22 Jan 1998 19:52:21\),)Tj
T*
0.0358 Tw
(in which he suggests the following guidelines)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.043 Tw
(for naked-eye limiting magnitudes and over-)Tj
T*
0.0016 Tc
0.125 Tw
(head light-pollution ratings:)Tj
9.5 0 0 9.5 372.41 455.03 Tm
0.0003 Tc
-0.0131 Tw
(Light pollution Severe: Only mag. 3.0 and)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
-0.0171 Tw
(brighter \(or worse\) are visible.)Tj
0.5937 -1.5032 TD
0.0004 Tc
-0.0053 Tw
(Light pollution Moderate: mag. 3.1 to 4.5 vis-)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
-0.0016 Tc
0 Tw
(ible.)Tj
0.5937 -1.5032 TD
0.0007 Tc
(Light pollution Mild: mag. 4.6 to 5.5 visible.)Tj
0 -1.4905 TD
-0.0065 Tw
(Light pollution Dark Sky: mag. 5.6 to 6.5 vis-)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
-0.007 Tw
[(ible \(occasional light domes\).)]TJ
0.5937 -1.5032 TD
0.0004 Tc
-0.0009 Tw
(Light pollution Pristine: mag. 6.6 and fainter)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
-0.0178 Tw
(visible \(little or no light pollution\).)Tj
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
-0.0001 Tc
0.0944 Tw
(The atmosphere)Tj
ET
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/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 462.65 54.35 Tm
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(31)Tj
-39.456 0 TD
0.0002 Tc
(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
ET
0 0 0 RG
0 J 0 j 0.24 w 10 M []0 d
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56.69 65.63 m
552.77 65.63 l
S
BT
10 0 0 10 158.21 696.71 Tm
/GS2 gs
0.0007 Tc
0.0367 Tw
(When selecting an observing site, various cri-)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.0142 Tw
(teria should be considered. Ive collected the)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.0214 Tw
(points of view of a few authors, summarising)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.065 Tw
(the properties they think are important.)Tj
1.14 -1.8 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0208 Tw
(My feeling is that convenience and comfort)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.02 Tw
(should be carefully considered. The quicker)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0129 Tw
(and easier you can observe, the more often)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0022 Tw
(youll do it. Also, as MacRobert notes, your)Tj
T*
0.024 Tw
(surroundings colour your experience of the)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0333 Tw
(universe. Ive spent hours observing alone in)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0294 Tw
(a nature reserve, with only the sound of small)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0533 Tw
(animals and the nearby stream to compliment)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
-0.0018 Tw
[(the celestial views a dif)24.7(ferent level of enjoy-)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.015 Tw
(ment compared to my backyard, with its easy)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0136 Tw
[(access to the CD player and cof)24.3(fee machine.)]TJ
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(Hunter \(1989\) considers:)Tj
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[(7. cost of transport to the site)]TJ
T*
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(8. set-up time)Tj
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[(things that matter)60.9(. They are:)]TJ
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T*
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T*
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[(6. the location)50.6(s overall aesthetics.)]TJ
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(From Sidgewick \(reference incomplete\):)Tj
9.5 0 0 9.5 169.49 225.35 Tm
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[(1. remoteness from road and rail traf)12(fic)]TJ
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(2. remoteness from any urban area, especially)Tj
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( in the direction of the prevailing wind, and)Tj
T*
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[( in inhabited buildings in the immediate)]TJ
T*
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[( vicinity)64.8(,)]TJ
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(3. absence of all artificial lights not)Tj
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[( controllable from the site)]TJ
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T*
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(Site selection and dew:)Tj
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[(T)71.2(o)0( help eliminate dew)60.4(, you can choose a site)]TJ
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T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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[(MacRobert)60.6(s \(1995\) suggestions: Geogra-)]TJ
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T*
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T*
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(worldwide. The best sites on Earth are moun-)Tj
T*
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(taintops facing into prevailing winds that have)Tj
T*
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(crossed thousands of miles of flat, cool ocean.)Tj
T*
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[(Y)98.3(ou don)24.1(t want to be downwind of a mountain;)]TJ
T*
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(the airstream breaks up into turbulent swirls)Tj
T*
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T*
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(downwind of varied terrain that absorbs solar)Tj
T*
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[(heat dif)24.5(ferently from one spot to the next. Flat,)]TJ
T*
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(uniform plains or gently rolling hills extend-)Tj
T*
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[(ing far upwind can be almost as good as an)]TJ
T*
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[(ocean for providing laminar airflow)60.1(. Y)108.1(ou may)]TJ
T*
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(learn to predict which wind direction brings)Tj
T*
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[(you the smoothest air)48.4(.)]TJ
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(Observing sites)Tj
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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[(2 Deepsky catalogues)]TJ
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[(Messier)-23.1()33.9(s)-0.1( list isnt)]TJ
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[(know)59.4(. Nor the old-)]TJ
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[(est, for that matter)97.1(.)]TJ
T*
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(Messier published)Tj
T*
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T*
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(1771; twenty years)Tj
T*
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[(befor)24.4(e him, another)]TJ
T*
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[(Fr)24.3(enchman,)]TJ
T*
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(Nicholas-Louis de la)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(Caille, was observ-)Tj
T*
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(ing the southern sky)Tj
T*
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[(fr)24.5(om Cape T)96.5(o)7.7(w)7.7(n)]TJ
T*
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T*
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T*
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(non-stellar objects.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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[(2.1 Lacaille)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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(One of the earliest catalogues of deepsky ob-)Tj
T*
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[(jects is the one prepared in the 1750)60.5(s by Abbe)]TJ
T*
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(Nicholas Louis de la Caille \(17131762\), who)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0004 Tc
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[(son to systematically observe the whole sky)60.4(.)]TJ
T*
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(During his stay at the Cape of Good Hope,)Tj
T*
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(Lacaille drew up a short list of the most re-)Tj
T*
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(markable objects he had come across.)Tj
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(Lacaille was at the Cape primarily to com-)Tj
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(pile a star catalogue. During his short visit)Tj
T*
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(\(17511752\) he accurately recorded positions)Tj
T*
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(and magnitudes of no less than 10 000 stars.)Tj
T*
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(He also published a list of 42 southern nebu-)Tj
T*
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(lae, which he divided into three types: Nebu-)Tj
T*
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(losities not accompanied by stars, Nebulosi-)Tj
T*
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0.0343 Tw
(ties due to clusters, and Stars accompanied)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(by nebulosity)60.8(. )12.7(In his report to the French)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(Academy of Sciences, Lacaille wrote:)Tj
9.5 0 0 9.5 169.49 469.79 Tm
0 Tc
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[(The so-called nebulous stars of)12.6(fer to the eyes)]TJ
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0.0001 Tc
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[(of the observers a spectacle so varied that their)]TJ
T*
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(exact and detailed description can occupy as-)Tj
T*
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T*
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T*
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(of philosophers. As singular as those nebulae)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
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[(are which can be seen from Europe, those)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
-0.0205 Tw
(which lie in the vicinity of the south pole con-)Tj
T*
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(cede to them nothing, either in number of ap-)Tj
T*
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T*
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(and list to serve as a guide for those with the)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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T*
0.0003 Tc
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(er telescopes. I would have greatly desired to)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0003 Tc
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T*
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(of 15 to 18 inches [in length] such as I had at)Tj
T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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(to see what has occupied me during my foreign)Tj
T*
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(sojourn will see well enough that I did not)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
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(have time to make that sort of observation.)Tj
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(I have found a great number of the three)Tj
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T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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T*
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[(the moon. However)38(, I do hope that the list is)]TJ
T*
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T*
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[(\(Quoted fr)37.9(om)]TJ
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(Gingerich\))Tj
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(Evans \(1990\) notes: Considering that this)Tj
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(list is based on the data from [the star cata-)Tj
T*
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(logue], that is, almost always one shot of the)Tj
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T*
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T*
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T*
0.0414 Tw
[(sky)60.6(, an honor which the present author once)]TJ
T*
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(ascribed to Sir John Herschel, who used much)Tj
T*
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T*
0.0342 Tw
[(ten times lar)12.1(ger diameter from a site some 6)]TJ
T*
0.0099 Tw
[(miles south of Lacaille)48.1(s. He, of course, did)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.025 Tw
(very much better and is the principal source of)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.058 Tw
(the southern data in the NGC.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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0.037 Tw
[(Lacaille also studied )13.2(the Magellanic Clouds:)]TJ
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-0.0003 Tc
0.0052 Tw
(As a result of examining several times with)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
-0.0116 Tw
[(a telescope . . . those parts of the Milky W)76.5(a)-2.8(y)]TJ
T*
-0.0004 Tc
0.0131 Tw
(where the whiteness is most remarkable and)Tj
T*
-0.0007 Tc
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(comparing them with the two clouds common)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(called the Magellanic Clouds, which the Dutch)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0146 Tw
(and Danes call the Cape Clouds, I saw that the)Tj
T*
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(white parts of the sky were similar in nature, or)Tj
T*
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(that the clouds are detached parts of the Milky)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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[(W)84.9(a)-3.5(y)63.2(,)0( which itself is often made of separated)]TJ
T*
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T*
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T*
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(by clusters of faint stars more closely packed)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(than in other parts of the sky)63.8(, whether of the)]TJ
T*
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[(Milky W)76.1(ay or of the Clouds, I never saw with)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(the ... telescope anything but a whiteness of the)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
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T*
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T*
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T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(than bits of the Milky W)76.3(ay spread round the)]TJ
T*
-0.0005 Tw
[(sky)51(, and that those of the third kind are stars,)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(which by accident are in front of luminous)Tj
T*
-0.0003 Tc
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(patches. \(Quoted from Evans\))Tj
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0.0325 Tw
(His record of the Coalsack, the prominent)Tj
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(dark nebula in Crux, is one of the first on)Tj
T*
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(record:)Tj
9.5 0 0 9.5 372.41 234.47 Tm
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0.0123 Tw
(One can add among the phenomena which)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
-0.0263 Tw
(strike the eye of anyone looking at the southern)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
-0.0205 Tw
[(sky)50.7(, a space of about 3 degrees in every direc-)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0015 Tw
(tion which seems intensely black in the eastern)Tj
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0.0006 Tc
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(the contrast with the brightness of the Milky)Tj
T*
0.0105 Tw
[(W)85.3(ay which surrounds this space on all sides.)]TJ
10 0 0 10 372.53 151.43 Tm
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0.0349 Tw
[(Lacaille)60.8(s catalogue is presented in Appen-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0608 Tw
(dix 1 \(page 40\) with an English translation)Tj
T*
0.0313 Tw
(and co-ordinates precessed to J2000.0.)Tj
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(Catalogues)Tj
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[(astr)12.5(onomy James)]TJ
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(Dunlop \(1795-1848\).)Tj
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(Dunlop arrived in)Tj
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[(New South W)59.3(ales,)]TJ
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(Australia, in 1821)Tj
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[(mirr)12.7(or)96.7(. He dr)24.7(ew up)]TJ
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T*
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(Medal of the Royal)Tj
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0.0001 Tc
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[(Astr)12.1(onomical Socie-)]TJ
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[(ty)43(.)]TJ
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[(2.2 James Dunlop)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.0006 Tc
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(One of the earliest cataloguers of the southern)Tj
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(sky was James Dunlop, who spent several)Tj
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T*
0.0333 Tw
[(of Eels\), New South W)84.5(ales, Australia. In his)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0015 Tw
(1827 article, presented to the Royal Society by)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0425 Tw
(Sir John Herschel, Dunlop writes:)Tj
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(of a degree south and about 1s.78 of time east)Tj
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[(of the Brisbane Observatory)63.4(. The observations)]TJ
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[(were made in the open air)37.6(, with an excellent 9-)]TJ
T*
-0.0369 Tw
(feet reflecting telescope, the clear aperture of)Tj
T*
0 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
[(the lar)25.3(ge mirror being nine inches. This tele-)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.003 Tw
(scope was occasionally fitted up as a meridian)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
-0.0421 Tw
(telescope ...)Tj
0.5937 -1.5032 TD
0.0002 Tc
-0.0146 Tw
(... the eye end of the telescope was raised or)Tj
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(lowered by a cord over a pulley attached to a)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(strong wooden post let into the ground about)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.002 Tw
(two feet: with this apparatus I have observed a)Tj
T*
-0.006 Tw
(sweep of eight or ten degrees in breadth with)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0243 Tw
(very little deviation ... and the tremor was very)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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(little even with a considerable magnifying)Tj
T*
-0.0058 Tc
0 Tw
[(power)44.7(.)]TJ
0.5937 -1.4905 TD
-0.0006 Tc
0.0017 Tw
(I made drawings or representations of a)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
-0.0002 Tc
0.0007 Tw
(great number of the nebulae and clusters at the)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(time of observation ... and also very correct)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
-0.0006 Tw
[(drawings of the Nebulae major and minor)50.3(, to-)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
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(gether with a representation of the milky nebu-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
-0.003 Tw
(losity surrounding the star Eta Robur Caroli. ...)Tj
21.9537 36.3663 TD
-0.0008 Tc
-0.0041 Tw
(The reductions and arrangement have been)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
-0.0002 Tc
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(principally made since my return to Europe;)Tj
T*
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(and I trust this catalogue of the nebulae will be)Tj
T*
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(found an acceptable addition to that knowledge)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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(which the Brisbane observatory has been the)Tj
T*
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(means of putting the world in possession of,)Tj
T*
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(respecting that important and hitherto but little)Tj
T*
-0.0197 Tw
(known portion of the heavens.)Tj
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0.0005 Tc
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(For various reasons, a great many entries in)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(Dunlop)60.5(s catalogue are suspect. Some are bad-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(ly described and are dif)24.6(ficult to verify)60.6(, while)]TJ
T*
0.0263 Tw
(others simply do not exist.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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(John Herschel \(see next section\) was the)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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[(first astronomer to try and locate Dunlop)60.7(s ob-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(jects; in some cases he was able to identify the)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(objects Dunlop described.)Tj
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0.0003 Tc
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(I have compiled a list of Dunlop objects as)Tj
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(observed by Herschel; these are listed in the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(table in Appendix 2 on page 41. Included in)Tj
T*
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(that list is one identification made by Magda)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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[(Streicher)48.3(, a member of the Deepsky Section.)]TJ
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0057 Tw
(I would be glad to assist anyone who would)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.0206 Tw
(like to take on this task of properly cross-iden-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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[(tifying Dunlop)48.4(s objects please contact me.)]TJ
/TT4 1 Tf
-20.292 -25.608 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.046 Tw
[(Further r)23.9(eading)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
6.948 0 TD
0 Tc
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(:)Tj
-6.948 -1.704 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0242 Tw
[(Cozens G & White G L \(2001\) James Dunlop: Messier of the southern sky)72.3(. )]TJ
/TT5 1 Tf
30.696 0 TD
0.0253 Tw
[(Sky & T)84.4(elescope)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
6.636 0 TD
0 Tc
0 Tw
(,)Tj
-37.332 -1.092 TD
0.0002 Tc
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[(June, 1)36.2(121)36.2(16.)]TJ
0 -1.728 TD
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(Cozens G \(1987\) James Dunlop Pioneer of the Southern Skies. )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
26.496 0 TD
0.0003 Tc
0 Tw
(Universe)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
3.612 0 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.03 Tw
[( , February)72.5(, 67.)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
0.0041 Tc
0 Tw
(Catalogues)Tj
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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[(lop)36.3(s work)]TJ
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[(appear)24.2(ed, the r)12.2(e)-2.9(-)]TJ
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(nowned observer)Tj
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[(John Fr)12.2(ederick W)24.2(i)-5.5(l)-5.5(-)]TJ
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(liam Herschel ar-)Tj
T*
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[(rived in Cape T)83.9(o)7.1(w)7.1(n)]TJ
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(to continue his sur-)Tj
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(vey of the northern)Tj
T*
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(skies. In 1847 his)Tj
T*
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(sults was published,)Tj
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[(thor)24(ough deepsky)]TJ
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(ern objects.)Tj
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[(2.3 John Herschel)]TJ
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(On January 15, 1834 there arrived at the)Tj
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(Cape a young English scientist and philoso-)Tj
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(pher who for sheer drive, intellectual capacity)Tj
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(and versatility has had few equals in the long)Tj
T*
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[(history of callers at T)72.7(able Bay)60.7(.)]TJ
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0.0003 Tc
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[(John Frederick W)48.3(i)-0.2(lliam Herschel, Bart.,)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
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[(K.H. was born at Slough, near W)48.5(indsor)36.5(, on the)]TJ
T*
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(7th March, 1792 and died at Collingwood,)Tj
T*
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[(Kent on the 1)36.4(1th May)60.4(, 1871, in his eightieth)]TJ
T*
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[(year)60.3(. He is buried in W)84.3(estminster Abbey not)]TJ
T*
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(far from Newton. John was the only child of)Tj
T*
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[(Sir Frederick W)36.4(illiam Herschel and, like his)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(father)48.5(, was one of the greatest astronomers of)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(all ages.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
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[(In 1820, assisted by his father)36.4(, he complet-)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(ed a mirror of 18 inches diameter and 20 feet)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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(focal length [f/13] which became the heart of)Tj
T*
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(the telescope with which much of his later ob-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
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(serving was done.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.045 Tw
(...there was an air of dilettantism about)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
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(Herschel. His mind ranged over a vast number)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(of subjects ... but when it came to physical)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
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(hard work his enthusiasm would often flag ...)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.053 Tw
(Professor Pritchard in his biographical notice)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.038 Tw
(in the Encyclopaedia Britannica wrote Her-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0278 Tw
(schel had become an astronomer from a sense)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0078 Tw
[(of duty)60.2(, just as his father had become one by)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.015 Tw
(fascination and fixed resolve: hence it was by)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0262 Tw
[(filial loyalty to his father)-35.7()57.3(s)1( memory that he)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(was now impelled to undertake the completion)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.025 Tw
(of that work which at Slough had been so)Tj
20.292 37.692 TD
-0.0004 Tc
0.0588 Tw
[(grandly commended. W)35.6(illiam Herschel had)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.053 Tw
(explored the northern heavens; John Herschel)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0267 Tw
(determined to explore the heavens of the)Tj
T*
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(south, as well as re-explore the north. )Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0183 Tw
[(Evans continues: W)84.6(e need now to envisage)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0001 Tc
0.0161 Tw
(Herschel some time in 1832: He is one of the)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
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(most celebrated scientists in Europe, a knight,)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.017 Tw
(honored by numerous scientific bodies, happily)Tj
T*
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(married, acquainted with all the most distin-)Tj
T*
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(guished scientists of Europe, a polyglot, with)Tj
T*
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(German, French, Italian, Latin and Greek at)Tj
T*
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(his command. He has made a name for himself)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
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[(in mathematics, astronomy)60.1(, chemistry and sev-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0236 Tw
(eral other fields. Now he thinks of observing)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0362 Tw
(the southern sky just as he has done the north-)Tj
T*
0.024 Tw
(ern, and he seeks for a place to carry out his)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(ambition. The choice is very limited . . . South)Tj
T*
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(America, South Africa, and Australia. For ob-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(vious reasons he chose South Africa; it of)24.5(fered,)]TJ
T*
0.078 Tw
(amongst others, an astronomical tradition and)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0292 Tw
[(an active observatory)60.7(, a healthy climate, and a)]TJ
T*
0.105 Tw
(convenient longitude.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0193 Tw
[(T)72.4(o achieve this object, he and his family)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0444 Tw
(set sail from England late in 1833 aboard the)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.11 Tw
(East Indiaman, the Mountstuart Elphinstone.)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0 Tw
(After a voyage of two months they came)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.03 Tw
(ashore, Herschel himself, his wife, the four)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0899 Tw
[(children Caroline, Emilia Mary)60.7(,)5.6( )5.5(W)48.7(illiam)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0415 Tw
(James, and Isabella. Then there was the me-)Tj
T*
0.0506 Tw
[(chanic, John Stone, who had in his char)12.4(ge the)]TJ
T*
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(20-foot reflector of 18 inches aperture \(with)Tj
T*
0.0383 Tw
(classical pedantry the mirrors provided for it)Tj
T*
0.0266 Tw
[(were often referred to as sesquipedalian\) and)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0342 Tw
(an equatorially mounted refractor of 5 inches)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.023 Tw
(diameter and 7 feet focus [f/17].)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0172 Tw
[(For the next four years, Herschel swept the)]TJ
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.044 Tw
(southern skies, producing a detailed catalogue)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0286 Tw
(of non-stellar objects, published in 1847 as )Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
17.676 0 TD
0.0022 Tc
0 Tw
(Re-)Tj
-17.676 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.048 Tw
[(sults of Astr)36.5(onomical Observations made dur-)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0382 Tw
(ing the years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8, at the Cape of)Tj
T*
0.0486 Tw
(Good Hope; Being the completion of a tele-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0381 Tw
(scopic survey of the whole surface of the visi-)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0612 Tw
(ble heavens, commenced in 1825)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
13.452 0 TD
0 Tc
0 Tw
(.)Tj
-12.312 -1.764 TD
0.0008 Tc
0.044 Tw
(This southern catalogue gives positions and)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0107 Tw
(descriptions for 1708 objects, of which 98 also)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0421 Tw
(appear in his northern catalogue. Of these ob-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0025 Tw
(jects, Herschel notes:)Tj
9.5 0 0 9.5 372.41 104.87 Tm
-0.0001 Tc
-0.0075 Tw
[(206 have also been identified, with more or)]TJ
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0007 Tc
-0.0134 Tw
(less certainty . . . with objects observed by Mr)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0026 Tw
(Dunlop, and described in his Catalogue of)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 56.69 274.19 Tm
0.0005 Tc
0.0075 Tw
[(An Occupation for an Independent Gentleman: Astr)24.5(onomy in the)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0.0267 Tw
(life of John Herschel)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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-0.0001 Tc
-0.0058 Tw
[(Sir John Frederick W)37.8(illiam Herschel occupies a pivotal position in the)]TJ
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
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[(history of British astronomy)63.5(. He formed the living link between two styles)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
-0.0125 Tw
(or traditions of science by being the last major specimen of one breed, and)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0191 Tw
[(the inspiration and intellectual role model for the generation to follow)63.3(. For)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
-0.0047 Tw
(John Herschel was perhaps the last significant figure to devote himself)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
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(wholly and full-time to fundamental research in astronomy and its related)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
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(sciences on the strength of a private fortune. And while the stature that he)Tj
T*
-0.0001 Tc
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(enjoyed did much to stimulate the concept of the professional astrono-)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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(mer in Britain, so many of these men of the rising generation who ad-)Tj
T*
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(mired his thorough-going dedication to science were themselves more ob-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(viously professional in the respect that they earned their livings through)Tj
T*
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(academic science. One sees in him, therefore, an eclectic blend of atti-)Tj
T*
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(tudes towards what science was, how it should be pursued, and how it)Tj
T*
-0.0054 Tw
[(should be paid for)50.9(.)]TJ
22.8505 -1.4905 TD
-0.0005 Tc
0.079 Tw
(\(Chapman 1993\))Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0006 Tc
0.0488 Tw
[(I r)36.6(esolved to attempt)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0533 Tw
(the completion of a)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0333 Tw
(survey of the whole)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0483 Tw
(surface of the heav-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0337 Tw
(ens, and for this pur-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0433 Tw
(pose to transport into)Tj
T*
0.0625 Tw
[(the other hemispher)36.7(e)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.055 Tw
(the same instrument)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.03 Tw
(which had been em-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0388 Tw
(ployed in this, so as)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.042 Tw
(to give a unity to the)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0367 Tw
[(r)29.9(esults of both por-)]TJ
T*
0.045 Tw
(tions of the survey)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0402 Tw
[(and to r)36.3(ender them)]TJ
T*
0.0475 Tw
(comparable with each)Tj
T*
0.0063 Tc
0 Tw
[(other)102.3(.)8.5()]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
0.0041 Tc
(Catalogues)Tj
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(Nebulae. The rest of the 629 objects, com-)Tj
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(such negligence in the act of sweeping as could)Tj
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0.0002 Tc
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[(give rise to so lar)12.8(ge a defalcation, but, on the)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
-0.0211 Tw
[(contrary)63.5(, by entering them on my working lists)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
-0.0047 Tw
(. . . took the usual precautions to ensure their)Tj
T*
-0.0003 Tc
-0.0285 Tw
[(rediscovery; and as I am, moreover)37.6(, of opinion)]TJ
T*
-0.0005 Tc
-0.0184 Tw
(that my examination of the southern circumpo-)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
-0.0134 Tw
(lar region will be found, on the whole, to have)Tj
T*
0 Tc
-0.024 Tw
[(been an ef)12.6(fective one, I cannot help concluding)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0041 Tw
(that, at least in the majority of those cases, a)Tj
T*
-0.0151 Tw
[(want of suf)13(ficient light or defining power in the)]TJ
T*
0.0052 Tw
(instrument used by Mr Dunlop, has been the)Tj
T*
0 Tc
0.0015 Tw
(cause of his setting down objects as nebulae)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
-0.0076 Tw
(where none really exist. That this is the case, is)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0289 Tw
(many instances, I have convinced myself by)Tj
T*
-0.0002 Tc
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(careful and persevering search over and around)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0074 Tw
(the places indicated in his catalogue.)Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0006 Tc
0.0675 Tw
("The principal object)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0367 Tw
(kept in view during)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.033 Tw
[(the pr)36.6(ogr)36.6(ess of my)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
-0.0025 Tw
(southern sweeps was)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0367 Tw
(the discovery of new)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(nebulae. The detec-)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.06 Tw
[(tion and measur)36.3(ement)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.02 Tw
(of double stars was)Tj
T*
0.0316 Tw
[(r)29.9(egar)36.7(ded as of subor-)]TJ
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.075 Tw
[(dinate inter)37.1(est, and)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
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[(allowed to interfer)24.6(e)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
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(as little as possible)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0284 Tw
(with the former en-)Tj
T*
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[(quiry)48.8(.)5.4( )5.7(T)85(o)-0.3( have execut-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
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[(ed a r)36.5(egular r)36.5(eview of)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
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(the southern heavens)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
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T*
0.001 Tc
0.0467 Tw
[(r)30.2(eflector for the pur-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
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(pose of detecting)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.05 Tw
(close double stars)Tj
T*
0.0395 Tw
[(would have r)36.7(equir)24.7(ed)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.04 Tw
(at least two addition-)Tj
T*
0.0011 Tc
0.05 Tw
(al years.")Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
0.012 -5.784 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0109 Tw
[(When London viewed the southern skies: The r)36.2(eception of Sir John)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0424 Tw
[(Herschel)36.6(s Cape Results.)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
9.5 0 0 9.5 68.09 184.43 Tm
-0.0003 Tc
-0.0064 Tw
(One sometimes wonders whether John Herschel felt haunted by the)Tj
-0.5937 -1.2 TD
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0.0005 Tw
(nebulae: as objects which he had inherited from his father and about)Tj
T*
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(which he could never really make up his mind. ... he hoped that after suf-)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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[(ficient investigation with lar)25.3(ge telescopes their nature might be revealed)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
-0.0076 Tw
[(just as the double stars have yielded to this style of questioning. Y)101.6(et that)]TJ
T*
0.0001 Tc
-0.0106 Tw
(promise was never fulfilled in his lifetime, and in the introductory pages)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
-0.0076 Tw
(of his definitive Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars one senses)Tj
T*
-0.0249 Tw
(the presence of a problem long since recognised yet not yet solved.)Tj
23.8484 -1.5032 TD
0.0579 Tw
(\(Ruskin 1997\))Tj
/TT5 1 Tf
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0.0003 Tc
0.025 Tw
[( As Nelson swept the)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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(seas you sweep the)Tj
T*
0.0015 Tc
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(skies, leaving little)Tj
T*
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(for those who may)Tj
T*
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(come after you.)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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0.045 Tw
(Letter from Thomas)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0267 Tw
(Maclear to John Her-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
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(schel, Royal Observa-)Tj
T*
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[(tory)73(, April 5, 1834)]TJ
9 0 0 9 202.73 54.35 Tm
0.0041 Tc
0 Tw
(Catalogues)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
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-0.0004 Tc
0.0139 Tw
[(Notes from Herschel)39.6(s Cape)]TJ
T*
0.001 Tc
0 Tw
(diaries)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 361.13 734.03 Tm
0.0006 Tc
0.0551 Tw
[(John Herschel)48.6(s diaries during his 19th centu-)]TJ
T*
0.0344 Tw
(ry stay at the Cape give a fascinating insight)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0281 Tw
[(into the life of this active observer)60.8(. During his)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0225 Tw
[(visit, he worked closely with Thomas Maclear)48.6(,)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0108 Tw
(HM Astronomer at the Royal Observatory at)Tj
T*
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-0.0063 Tw
(the Cape of Good Hope.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0007 Tc
0.0293 Tw
(I have gone through three works directly re-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0136 Tw
(lated to this period: Herschel's own Results of)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.041 Tw
(Cape Observations, and the diary extracts)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0423 Tw
[(published by W)84.2(arner & W)72.2(arner \(1984\) and)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0416 Tw
(Evans et al \(1969\).)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0131 Tw
(From these I have collected some lists of in-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0009 Tc
0.027 Tw
(teresting or otherwise remarkable objects, pre-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0364 Tw
(sented in Appendix 3 \(page 42\). On several)Tj
T*
0.0225 Tw
(occassions, Herschel noted regions very rich in)Tj
T*
0.0242 Tw
[(faint stars these Milky W)84.7(ay Clusters, to-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.064 Tw
(gether with their corresponding NGC num-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0413 Tw
[(bers, are given in T)60.7(able 1. Interesting descrip-)]TJ
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0429 Tw
(tions and challenging objects are given in the)Tj
T*
0.0285 Tw
[(other two tables. There is also a reproduction)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0187 Tw
(of the first deepsky sketch he made at the)Tj
T*
0.0058 Tc
0 Tw
(Cape.)Tj
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(Deepsky Observers Companion |)Tj
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BT
10 0 0 10 158.21 696.71 Tm
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[(Dreyer was born in Denmark, but emigrated to)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
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[(Ireland in 1874 to work at Lord Rosse)48.3(s great)]TJ
T*
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(observatory in Parsonstown. Though an ama-)Tj
T*
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[(teur)36.7(, the third Earl of Rosse had built succes-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
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[(sively lar)24.8(ger speculum mirror reflecting tele-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0342 Tw
[(scopes through the late 1830)48.5(s and early)]TJ
T*
0.0406 Tw
[(1840)60.5(s. The series culminated in a massive 72-)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0348 Tw
[(inch telescope, the lar)24.4(gest in the world from)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0344 Tw
(the date of its completion in 1845 until its dis-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0433 Tw
[(mantling just before the first W)84.1(orld W)84.1(a)-3(r)48.1(.)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.03 Tw
(Rosse, his son \(the fourth earl\), and his observ-)Tj
T*
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(ers \(Dreyer was one of these\) spent years ex-)Tj
T*
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(amining and measuring the known nebulae in)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
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(the northern sky with the famous Leviathan)Tj
T*
0 Tc
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(of Parsonstown, and discovered many more)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
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(fainter nebulae themselves.)Tj
1.14 -24.564 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0291 Tw
(During the observations, it became clear to)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0004 Tc
0.0284 Tw
(Dreyer that it was time to update Sir John Her-)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0167 Tw
[(schel)60.7(s so-called GC \(General Catalogue\) of)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0509 Tw
(nebulae and star clusters, published in 1864.)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0187 Tw
[(Just a decade later)48.5(, there were simply too many)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0133 Tw
(new nebulae being discovered and too many)Tj
T*
0.0103 Tw
[(dif)12.4(ferent lists to consult for previous discover-)]TJ
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0442 Tw
[(ies. Preparing observing lists or simply finding)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0113 Tw
(if a nebula had been previously found by an-)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.027 Tw
(other observer had become a time-consuming)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
-10.152 61.416 TD
-0.0001 Tc
0.0293 Tw
[(Johann Dr)11.9(eyer)-12.1()32.9(s)]TJ
0 -1.2 TD
0 Tc
0 Tw
(1888 update of John)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.1102 Tw
[(Herschel)25(s General)]TJ
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.01 Tw
(Catalogue has be-)Tj
T*
0.0016 Tw
(come the most wide-)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.03 Tw
(ly-used deepsky cat-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.015 Tw
(alogue of all times,)Tj
T*
0.001 Tc
0.04 Tw
(listing 8,000 objects)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.0233 Tw
(of all types excepting)Tj
T*
0.055 Tw
(dark nebulae.)Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
16 0 0 16 158.21 772.4301 Tm
-0.0026 Tc
-0.0029 Tw
(2.4 Dreyer)Tj
/TT4 1 Tf
10 0 0 10 158.21 131.99 Tm
0.0001 Tc
0.0354 Tw
[(Further r)12.1(eading:)]TJ
/TT1 1 Tf
0 -1.764 TD
0.0214 Tw
[(Gingerich O \(1988\) J L E Dreyer and his NGC. Sky & T)72.1(elescope, December)36.1(, 621.)]TJ
T*
0 Tc
0.0318 Tw
(Sinnott R W \(1988\) NGC 2000.0, The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.0328 Tw
[(Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer)60.3(. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge Uni-)]TJ
T*
0.0008 Tc
-0.015 Tw
(versity Press.)Tj
20.292 62.4 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0367 Tw
(chore. Thus, Dreyer published a supplement to)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0178 Tw
(the GC of about 1000 new objects in 1878, and)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0442 Tw
( having suggested yet another supplement in)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0106 Tw
(1886 was instead asked by the Royal Astro-)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.01 Tw
(nomical Society to assemble a new general)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0079 Tw
[(catalogue of non-stellar objects. Dreyer)36.8(, who)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0491 Tw
(had in the meanwhile been appointed Director)Tj
T*
0.0525 Tw
(of Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland in)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.0275 Tw
(1882, then added the latest 1500 objects to the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0386 Tw
(previous lists, combined them all in Right As-)Tj
T*
0.0286 Tw
[(cension \(for 1860\) order)36.3(, and the New Gener-)]TJ
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0314 Tw
(al Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters ap-)Tj
T*
-0.0003 Tc
0.0219 Tw
[(peared as V)119.7(olume 49, Number 1 of the Mem-)]TJ
T*
-0.0001 Tc
0.025 Tw
(oirs of the RAS in 1888.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0002 Tc
0.0283 Tw
(Assembling the NGC, Dreyer had to con-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0005 Tc
0.0392 Tw
(tend with conflicting claims of position and)Tj
T*
0.0114 Tw
(description for what he often suspected to be)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0156 Tw
(the same nebula. Some of these he could check)Tj
T*
0 Tc
0.0183 Tw
(himself; most because of the overwhelming)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0094 Tw
(numbers of objects he simply had to accept)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.034 Tw
[(as published. Fortunately)60.6(, he was an excellent)]TJ
T*
0.0225 Tw
(transcriber very few of the errors in the)Tj
T*
0.0268 Tw
(NGC can be traced to carelessness on his part)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0407 Tw
[(\(his most common error)36.1(, or that of his uncred-)]TJ
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.025 Tw
(ited assistants, was to apply precession with)Tj
T*
0.0314 Tw
(the wrong sign to declinations\). Most of the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0407 Tw
(problems in the NGC are with the original po-)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0417 Tw
(sitions and descriptions, coming as they did)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0066 Tw
[(from many dif)12.2(ferent observers using telescopes)]TJ
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0477 Tw
(ranging in size from 2 inches to 72 inches, and)Tj
T*
0.0009 Tc
0.0875 Tw
(relying on auxiliary instrumentation that)Tj
T*
0.0006 Tc
0.0407 Tw
(ranged from nonexistent to state of the art.)Tj
1.14 -1.764 TD
0.0003 Tc
0.01 Tw
(At one extreme were the careful observa-)Tj
-1.14 -1.2 TD
0.0006 Tc
0.0316 Tw
(tions of the astrometrists working at profes-)Tj
T*
0.0008 Tc
0.002 Tw
(sional observatories. These observers were ac-)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0175 Tw
(tively involved not only in nebular astronomy)Tj
T*
0.0243 Tw
( indeed, with one or two exceptions, the)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0264 Tw
(nebulae consumed very little of their time and)Tj
T*
0.0005 Tc
0.0571 Tw
(attention but in setting up the fundamental)Tj
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.0109 Tw
(coordinate reference system which we still use)Tj
T*
0.0002 Tc
0.0316 Tw
[(today in a form little dif)12.2(ferent than it was a)]TJ
T*
0.0004 Tc
0.026 Tw
(century ago. These observations, made with)Tj
T*
0.0007 Tc
0.042 Tw
(precision optical micrometers, tie the positions)Tj
T*
0.0001 Tc
0.0317 Tw
(of the nebulae into the fundamental system)Tj
T*
0.0003 Tc
0.0269 Tw
(with random errors on the order of a few)Tj
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T*
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